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Physiology of Memory and Learning
Physiology of Memory and Learning
Physiology of Memory
and Learning
Memory an Learning
a) Classic Conditioning
This type of conditioned reflexes was 1 st described
by Pavlov (Russian Physiologist)
He noticed that his experimental dogs salivate just
on seeing the animal house keeper who used to feed
Some sort of association had developed in the brains
of these animals between visual stimuli related to
seeing the housekeeper (conditioned stimulus) and
food ingestion (unconditioned stimulus for
salivation when food is placed in mouth)
a) Classic Conditioning
a) Classic Conditioning
This type of conditioning can be integrated a different
levels of CNS
Requirements:
1) CS applied before US
2) Pairing must occur several times
3) No separation between the CS and US
a) Classic Conditioning
b) Operant Conditioning
In this type of conditioning the subject is taught to
perform some voluntary action in response to a
particular stimulus (visual or sound stimulus) that
alert him to perform the learned action in order to
obtain reward to avoid punishment
Alerting signal acts as conditioned stimulus whereas
pleasant or unpleasant event that follow
performance of learned response represents
unconditioned stimulus
b) Operant Conditioning
b) Operant Conditioning
Example:
Car driver and traffic light
The car driver stops the car on seeing the red traffic
light and drives on seeing the green light
Integration:
Hippocampus and amygdala are important in linking
the stimulus to the operation
Integration occurs in CC especially orbitofrontal
cortex
Non-associative Learning
In this type of learning, the subject learns whether
to ignore or react to a certain stimulus
It is a simple way of learning that does not need
association between 2 stimuli
It is 2 types;
A) Habituation
B) Sensitization
Habituation
It is a gradual decrease in the response to stimulus
when it is frequently repeated
It is simple and widespread
Examples:
A loud and unexpected sound produces looking
towards the source of sound, change in heart rate,
and change in blood pressure
If the sound turns to be insignificant, its repetition
results in little or no response
Habituation
It is a stimulus specific e.g. traffic noise and mother
and baby
Mechanism:
Repetition of the stimulus close Ca channels in
presynaptic neurons Ca influx release of
neurotransmitters behavioral responses to the
stimulus
Habituation
Experiments performed in Aplysia californica
Sensitization
It is a potentiation in the response to stimulus (painful
or pleasant) when it is frequently repeated
It is simple and widespread
Examples:
One normally ignore stray dogs by habituation, but if
he is bitten, he will become more attentive and
develop aversion reaction to them for long time
Stimulus specific:
One who is bitten by dogs will not be afraid of
donkeys or cows
Sensitization
Mechanism:
Strongor noxious stimulus facilitating
interneurons (serotonin) cAMP in presynaptic
neurons block of K channels depolarization of
presynaptic neurons keep Ca channels open
Ca influx release of neurotransmitters
behavioral response to mild stimuli
Sensitization
Sensitization
Memory
Def
memory is the process by which that knowledge of the world is
encoded, stored, and later retrieved (Kandel (2000),
Memory is a phase of learning
Mechanism:
1. Stimulation of reverberating circuits repeated
activation of neurons
2. Synaptic sensitization if sensory experience coupled with
painful stimuli
Sensory Memory. 1
Mechanism:
3. Posttetanic potentiation: multiple stimuli at
presynaptic terminal Ca content in presynaptic
terminal release of neurotransmitters
Mechanism of forgetting:
1. Fading (spontaneous and gradual decline in the amount
of information)
2. Extinction (spont. disappearance of information from
memory)
2. Short-term Memory
Duration: (min to hours)
Capacity
Small bits of informations
Millers magical number: 72 chunks of information
Entry into storage: verbalization (describing the
items in words)
Recall or access to storage: rapid
Mechanism:
Made by formation of temporary memory traces
2. Short-term Memory
Memory trace:
Is a newly developed pathway or signal transmission
resulting from facilitation of new synapses creation of
new circuits in the brain
This occurs by
1. Long term potentiation of synapses
2. Changes in physical properties of postsynaptic
membrane sensitivity to chemical transmitters
Mechanism of forgetting:
New information replaces old
3. Long-term Memory
Duration: (hours to years )
Capacity
Very large
Information stored according to its significance
Entry into storage: practice or and punishment or
reward
Recall or access to storage: slow
Mechanism:
Made by formation of memory engrams (long-
lasting memory traces) formed by structural
changes in presynaptic terminals
Long-term potentiation
1. The binding of glutamate to its NMDA receptors and simultaneous
depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane causes the NMDA
receptor channels to open.
2. This opening of the NMDA receptor channels allows Ca2+ to
enter.
3. The entry of Ca2+ into the postsynaptic neuron causes long-term
potentiation in that neuron.
4. The entry of Ca2+ into the postsynaptic neuron also activates
nitric oxide synthase, causing nitric oxide production.
5. The nitric oxide then acts as a retrograde messenger, diffusing into
the presynaptic neuron and somehow causing it to release more
neurotransmitter.
3. Long-term Memory
Mechanism:
memory engrams made up by;
1. increase in number of vesicles
2. increase in number of presynaptic terminals
3. increase in release sites of chemical transmitters
4. generation of new receptor sites
5. long term potentiation
Engrams remain for long time up to several years
Formation of new engrams requires protein
synthesis
3. Long-term Memory
Mechanism of forgetting:
1. Proactive inhibition by previously stored materials
(more common)
2. Retroactive inhibition by subsequently stored
material
4. Permanent Memory
Duration: (permanent)
Capacity
Very large
Entry into storage: very frequent practice
Recall or access to storage: very rapid (recall not
affected by brain injury (like name, write, and read)
Mechanism:
Advanced stage of long-term(permanent engrams)
Mechanism of forgetting :
No forgetting
Phases of memory
Encoding-information for each memory is assembled from the
different sensory systems and translated into whatever form necessary
to be remembered. This is presumably the domain of the association
cortices and perhaps other areas.
Consolidation-converting the encoded information into a form that
can be permanently stored. The hippocampal and surrounding areas
apparently accomplish this.
Storage-the actual deposition of the memories into the final resting
placesthis is though to be in association cortex.
Retrieval-memories are of little use if they cannot be read out for later
use. Less is known about this process.
Encoding of memory
It means classification and placing memory items in their proper
memory stores in brain
Brain areas concerned with encoding of long term memory;
1. Hippocampus (major central role) all bits of information go to it
first
2. Amygdala (emotional memory)
3. Basal forebrain (Nucleus basalis or Meynerts nucleus)
4. Noecortex
5. Mammillary body of hypothalamus
6. Orbitofrontal cortex
Encoding of memory
Select important informations
All bits (reward or punishment)
Hippocampus Mamillary
store body
Amygdala
store
(Temporal lobe) Cholinergic projections
Cholinergic projections
1. Deep anaesthesia
2. Brain concussion
3. Electroconvulsive therapy
Brain Regions involved in Consolidation of
memory
Hippocampus
Anterior & lateral
temporal lobe,
Medial temporal lobe
Amygdala
Hippocampus and Consolidation of memory