Objective 4

Geological
Structure
 - Introduction
O Study of permanent deformation and
rock failure
O Created by changes in stress through
geological time
O Important aspect of geology
O Controls strength, , stress-strain
characteristics
O Types: Primary,Secondary.
 Fold
O Structures formed by bending of rock
O Formed due to ductile deformation of
rocks
O Bending of rock strata due to
compressional forces
O May develop in any kind of rocks
O May be of any shape and size
 Parts of fold
Limbs
Hinge
Axial plane
 Classification of fold
Based on Axial Plane and Appearance in Cross-
section
Antiform : Upward convex structure
Syncfrom: Upward concave structure
Anticline: Convex upward , older rock at core
Syncline: Convex downward, younger rock at centre
Anticlinorium: large composite anticline composed
of folds
Synclinorium: large composite syncline composed of
folds
O Symmetric fold
O Asymmetric fold
O Overturned fold
O Isoclinal fold
O Recumbent fold
O Chevron fold
Recognition of fold in
field
Direct observation
Visual inspection
Repetition of strata of same kind
Indirect observation
Plotting attitude of beds and
preparing geological maps
 Engineering
Significance
O In flanks and core compressive force is induced
and in hinge tensile stress
O Fractures present in fold causes instability
O In syncline fold, water locks causing failure
O Effect in design, economy and stability of a project
O Smaller scale fold bigger concern
O For dams,water leakage may occur
O However Dams built on limb dipping upstream
safe
 Fault
O brittle deformation induced fracture
O Movement of blocks on either side of
plane
O Block above fault plane: hanging wall
O Block below fault plane: foot wall
O Slip
Classification of fault
O Based on direction of slip
O strike-slip, where the offset is
predominantly horizontal, parallel to
the fault trace.
O dip-slip, offset is predominantly
vertical and/or perpendicular to the
fault trace.
O oblique-slip, combining significant
strike and dip slip.
O Based on Genetic
O Normal fault:Hanging wall blocks
move downward relative to foot wall
O Reverse fault: Hanging wall blocks
move upward to foot wall
O Thrust fault: Reverse fault has a dip of
less than 40 degree
 Field identification
O Direct observation in river cuttings,
road cuttings , etc
O Discontinuity of structures
O Repetition or omission of strata
O Solidification and mineralization
O Presence of feature characteristics of
fault planes (slickenside, gouge, fault
breccia)
O For large scale fault, geological map
may be used
O Slickensides :Smooth polished
surface
O Gouge Tectonite with a very small
grain size
O Fault breccia:
O Breccia: rock type consisting of
angular clasts
 Engineering
Significance
O Faults causes shearing and crushing of
rocks
O Rocks become unstable, weak, porous.
O Weak foundation, Leakage of water
O Occurrence of landslides, earthquakes
O Located far away from active fault
O Treatment can be done by extensive
excavations, back failing with cement
and grouting.
 Graded bedding
O Primary structure
O Change in grain size
O Two types:
O Normal grading (fine at top)
O Normal graded beds generally represent
depositional environments
O Form in terrestial steam deposits
O Reverse grading (fine at bottom)
O Grain flow and debris flow
O Eolian ripples