Folds in the field

Fold patterns and field analyses

Elements of folds
Planar objects:
Axial plane, Foliations, Fold
limbs

Linear objects:
Fold axes, Associated slip
lineation and Stretching
lineation either on fold limbs
and foliations.
 Visual assessment of folds on maps
Symmetrical repetitions of the same beds outwards from the hinge zone
NOTE: repetition may be due to faulting or even V-shape pattern.
Anticline -------- oldest rocks exist within its core.
Syncline --------- youngest rocks exist within its core.
Anticline -------- fold limbs dip outward the fold axis.
Syncline --------- fold limbs dip toward the fold axis.
Symmetrical folds have equal dips for their fold limbs and vice versa of
asymmetrical folds.
Overturned folds, one limb is rotated so that lying under the other limb.
Recumbent folds, the two limbs lying horizontally, the axial plane is horizontal.
Non-plunging fold ------- exposures of folded layer on geologic maps converge at
the trace of fold axis.
Plunging anticline, the exposures of fold limbs converge in direction of plunge and
vice versa in case of syncline.
Visual assessment of folds on maps
On a map view, parallel outcrops indicate
non-plunging fold irrespective to irregular
relief.
On a cross-section making an angle with
the axial line, the fold type is determined.
On a cross-section parallel to the fold
axis, the attitude of layers is horizontal in
non-plunging fold.

On a map view, converging pattern

indicates plunging fold irrespective to
irregular relief.
On a cross-section making an angle with
the axial line, the fold type is determined.
On a cross-section parallel to the fold
axis, the attitude of layers is inclined in
direction of fold plunge.
Visual assessment of folds on maps
Note: Irregular relief can give illusory interpretation of arc-shaped patterns of
exposures
Visual assessment of folds on maps

Arc-shaped outcrops
suggest plunging fold,
lack topographic relief.
Dip symbols confirm
anticline.
Visual assessment of folds on maps

Symmetrical repetition of
formation suggest fold,
relative ages of
formations indicate
syncline.

Be careful repetition may

be due to faulting.
 Visual assessment of folds on maps

Arcuate pattern suggests

folding, be careful when
you deal with geologic
maps in a rugged
topography, topographic
contours develop V-
shape patterns for the
V-pattern folded rocks

The oldest rocks occur usually inside of the core of V-pattern - developed around
drainage lines - as the case of anticlines and doesnt in case of syncline.,
The youngest rocks occupy the core of V-exposure - formed on hills - as the syncline.
Take care!!!!!
In rugged terranes, the converging exposures of folded units may indicate non-plunging
folds
Visual assessment of folds on maps
Without additional
information, arcuate
outcrop could represent
a fold, but adequately
explained by uniformly
dipping unit crossing a
hill side.

If you know that the

mapped terrane
doesnt involve folds:
NW-dipping
homocline
SE-dipping homocline
Arc pattern on hill
Arc pattern on wadi
b and c
Visual assessment of folds on maps
Symmetrical repetition of rock units
suggests a fold, unlikely to be a
topographic effect at this scale, (note
degrees of lat. and long.).
Doubly convergent form indicate a
doubly plunging fold.
Anticline as the inner formations is
older
Suggest no topographic effect. The
structure is:
a. Doubly plunging anticline.
b. Doubly plunging syncline.
c. Asymmetric fold.
d. Symmetric fold.
e. a/c
f. a/d
g. b/c
h. b/d
Visual assessment of folds on maps

Relative ages of rocks

show an anticline to NW
and syncline to SE,
If suggested no
topographic effect.
Visual assessment of folds on maps
Structural contours for
cylindrical plunging folds

Structural contours for

non-cylindrical folds

Determination of plunge

NOTE: exposures are

interpreted as the case of
contour map interpretation.
 Summary of folds in map scale
The axial line and axial surface are useful in specifying the orientation of fold as
plunge and trend, and strike and dip respectively.

This orientation information is awkward to interpret from outcrop patterns; it is

commonly provided on the map by symbols.

Folds are recognized on maps by the symmetrical repetition of units in a

horizontal fold axis, and by the converging outcrops of plunging fold.

It may be possible to
interpret from a map
something about the
attitude, shape, style, and
dimensions of folds, but the
appearance of plunging
folds on maps and sections
can be illusory.
 Recorded fold data in field notes
Urgent notifications:

Folds should be photographed and drawn in details and are briefly

described in field note.
Orientation and scale should be provided in such drawing.
Kinds of rocks and minerals involved in folding and their geometrical
relationships to the fold should be listed at sites of measurements.

Many orientation measurements are needed to obtain well defined fold

orientation pattern specially in terranes of interference folds. Steronet
should be used in statistical operation of orientation field data.

Axial plane is determined approximately through the plane containing

the fold axis and the line bisecting the interlimb angle.
 Elements of fold orientation
Orientation data in field notes
1. Axial plane, associated foliation, fold limbs and enveloping surface are
measured as planar objects in field notes (strike/dip or dip/dip).
Enveloping surface is approximately planar and touches the crests or the
troughs of a train of folds in one layer.

2. Fold axis and other linear elements (slip lines, pencil structures and
stretching and mineral lineations) are measured as linear objects
(direction/plunge)
 Elements of fold orientation
Orientation data in field notes
3. Vergence is the direction in which asymmetric folds are overturned, and is an
indicator of rotational displacement. The given figures show that all folds verge
toward right and imply displacement of the upper part of the fold envelope over the
lower part. If enveloping surfaces are not horizontal, vergence is inclined and is
parallel to the enveloping surfaces; in the attached figure, it is upward and to the
right.
Elements of fold numerical measurements
angular and dimensional measurements
1. Interlimb angle

2. The ratio between the length of the more or less straight limb segment of the
fold (s) and the length of the arc between the limb and the hinge line (c). This
ratio and interlimb angle give numerical measures of the tightness of the fold.
Different s/c ratios for the two limbs give a measure of the asymmetry of the fold.
Elements of fold numerical measurements
angular and dimensional measurements
3. The wave length that is the distance between any two equivalent parts of
adjacent folds

4. One-half the distance between the two enveloping surfaces to measure the
amplitude of the fold.
 Elements of fold numerical measurements
angular and dimensional measurements
In a layer with systematic variation in thickness within
a fold:
- Measure the x and y (the lengths measure
orthogonally across the layer at the limb and hinge
zone respectively). The ratio x/y describes the shape
of folds during ductile deformation.
- The parallel fold, the thickness remain equal
throughout the fold.
- The similar fold shows considerable variation of
layer thickness and always a thinning on the fold
limbs relative to that seen at the hinge zone.
- All lines transcribed across the layer,
parallel to the axial surface are equal in
length to the thickness at the hinge.
- Measure the angle between the axial plane
and folded layer () and calculate its sine.
 Elements of fold numerical measurements
angular and dimensional measurements
- Parallel folds: ratio = 1
- Fold spectrum between parallel and similar folds:
ratio = less than one and more than sin.
- For more pressed folds: ratio less than sin
indicating an increase degree of flattening toward the
axial plane.
- Ratio more than one indicate flattening toward a
surface oriented at large angles to the axial plane.
 Superimposed fold
Deformation events and age relation
Folds may be folded again and superimposition is determined through:

1. Development of knobby and systematically cross-

rippled forms in a surface broken along bedding.

2. Paired surfaces that each show

a profile view of a set of fold.

3. Profile views of tightly folded layers that have been

refolded more or less coaxially
 Superimposed fold
Deformation events and age relation

4. Surfaces eroded approximately parallel to the average

direction of layering show quadrate, rhombic or more
bizarre patterns.

5. Lineations warped obliquely around fold hinge, in most

cases indicate two deformation phases.

6. Folded linear structures such as stretched and flattened

pebbles

7. Crossing lineation.
8. Folded foliations and any other cleavage features.
9. Folded veins.
Some examples of superimposed fold
Deformation events and age relation
Some examples of superimposed fold
Deformation events and age relation
Some examples of superimposed fold
Deformation events and age relation
Some examples of superimposed fold
Deformation events and age relation
Sheath fold Two deformation events
Folding then faulting