SEVENTH EDITIO

MACROECONOMICS
N. Gregory Mankiw
PowerPoint Slides by Ron Cronovich

CHAPT 7

2010 UPDATE
ER
Economic Growth I:
Capital Accumulation and
Population Growth
2011 Worth Publishers, all rights reserved
In this chapter, you will learn:
the closed economy Solow model
how a countrys standard of living depends on
its saving and population growth rates
how to use the Golden Rule to find the
optimal saving rate and capital stock
 Why growth matters
Data on infant mortality rates:
20% in the poorest 1/5 of all countries
0.4% in the richest 1/5
In Pakistan, 85% of people live on less than $2/day.
One-fourth of the poorest countries have had
famines during the past 3 decades.
Poverty is associated with oppression of women
and minorities.
Economic growth raises living standards and
reduces poverty.
CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 3
Income and poverty in the world
selected countries, 2000
links to prepared graphs @
Gapminder.org
notes: circle size is proportional to population size,
color of circle indicates continent, press play on
bottom to see the cross section graph evolve over time,
click here for one-page instruction guide
Income per capita and
Life expectancy
Infant mortality
Malaria deaths per 100,000
Adult literacy
Cell phone users per 100,000
 Why growth matters

Anything that effects the long-run rate of economic

growth even by a tiny amount will have huge
effects on living standards in the long run.

annual percentage increase in

growth rate of standard of living after
income per
capita 25 years 50 years 100 years

2.0% 64.0% 169.2% 624.5%

2.5% 85.4% 243.7% 1,081.4%

CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 6

 Why growth matters
If the annual growth rate of U.S. real GDP per
capita had been just one-tenth of one percent
higher during the 1990s, the U.S. would have
generated an additional $496 billion of income
during that decade.

CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 7

 The lessons of growth theory
can make a positive difference in the lives of
hundreds of millions of people.
These lessons help us
understand why poor
countries are poor
design policies that
can help them grow
learn how our own
growth rate is affected
by shocks and our
governments policies

CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 8

 The Solow model
due to Robert Solow,
won Nobel Prize for contributions to
the study of economic growth
a major paradigm:
widely used in policy making
benchmark against which most
recent growth theories are compared
looks at the determinants of economic growth
and the standard of living in the long run

CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 9

 How Solow model is different
from Chapter 3s model
1. K is no longer fixed:
investment causes it to grow,
depreciation causes it to shrink
2. L is no longer fixed:
population growth causes it to grow
3. the consumption function is simpler

CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 10

 How Solow model is different
from Chapter 3s model
4. no G or T
(only to simplify presentation;
we can still do fiscal policy experiments)
5. cosmetic differences

CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 11

 The production function
In aggregate terms: Y = F (K, L)
Define: y = Y/L = output per worker
k = K/L = capital per worker
Assume constant returns to scale:
zY = F (zK, zL ) for any z > 0
Pick z = 1/L. Then
Y/L = F (K/L, 1)
y = F (k, 1)
y = f(k) where f(k) = F(k, 1)

CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 12

 The production function
Output per
worker, y
f(k)

MPK = f(k +1) f(k)

1

Note:
Note: this
thisproduction
productionfunction
function
exhibits
exhibitsdiminishing
diminishingMPK.
MPK.

Capital per
worker, k
CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 13
 The national income identity
Y=C+I (remember, no G )
In per worker terms:
y=c+i
where c = C/L and i = I /L

CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 14

 The consumption function

s = the saving rate,

the fraction of income that is saved
(s is an exogenous parameter)
Note: s is the only lowercase variable that
is not equal to
its uppercase version divided by L
Consumption function: c = (1s)y
(per worker)

CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 15

 Saving and investment
saving (per worker) = y c
= y (1s)y
= sy
National income identity is y = c + i
Rearrange to get: i = y c = sy
(investment = saving, like in chap. 3!)

Using the results above,

i = sy = sf(k)

CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 16

 Output, consumption, and
investment
Output per f(k)
worker, y

c1
y1 sf(k)

i1

k1 Capital per
worker, k
CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 17
 Depreciation
Depreciation == the
the rate
rate of
of depreciation
depreciation
per worker, k == the
the fraction
fraction of
of the
the capital
capital stock
stock
that
that wears
wears out
out each
each period
period

Capital per
worker, k
CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 18
 Capital accumulation

The basic idea: Investment increases the capital

stock, depreciation reduces it.

Change in capital stock = investment depreciation

k = i k

Since i = sf(k) , this becomes:

k = s f(k) k

CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 19

 The equation of motion for k

k = s f(k) k
The Solow models central equation
Determines behavior of capital over time
which, in turn, determines behavior of
all of the other endogenous variables
because they all depend on k. E.g.,
income per person: y = f(k)
consumption per person: c = (1s) f(k)

CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 20

 The steady state

k = s f(k) k
If investment is just enough to cover depreciation
[sf(k) = k ],
then capital per worker will remain constant:
k = 0.

This occurs at one value of k, denoted k*,

called the steady state capital stock.

CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 21

 The steady state

Investment
and k
depreciation
sf(k)

k* Capital per
worker, k
CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 22
 Moving toward the steady
state k = sf(k)
Investment k
and k
depreciation
sf(k)

k
investment

depreciation

k1 k* Capital per
worker, k
CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 23
 Moving toward the steady state
k = sf(k)
Investment k
and k
depreciation
sf(k)

k1 k2 k* Capital per
worker, k
CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 24
 Moving toward the steady state
k = sf(k)
Investment k
and k
depreciation
sf(k)

k
investment
depreciation

k2 k* Capital per
worker, k
CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 25
 Moving toward the steady state
k = sf(k)
Investment k
and k
depreciation
sf(k)

k2 k3 k* Capital per
worker, k
CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 27
 Moving toward the steady state
k = sf(k)
Investment k
and k
depreciation
sf(k)
Summary:
Summary:
As
As long
long asas kk << kk**,,
investment
investment willwill exceed
exceed
depreciation,
depreciation,
and
and kk will
will continue
continue to to
grow
grow toward
toward kk**..

k3 k* Capital per
worker, k
CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 28
NOW YOU TRY:
Approaching k* from above
Draw the Solow model diagram,
labeling the steady state k*.
On the horizontal axis, pick a value greater than k*
for the economys initial capital stock. Label it k1.

Show what happens to k over time.

Does k move toward the steady state or
away from it?
 A numerical example
Production function (aggregate):
Y F (K , L) K L K 1/ 2L1/ 2

To derive the per-worker production function,

divide through by L:
1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2
Y K L K

L L L

Then substitute y = Y/L and k = K/L to get

y f (k ) k 1/ 2
CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 30
 A numerical example, cont.

Assume:
s = 0.3
= 0.1
initial value of k = 4.0

CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 31

 Approaching the steady state:
A numerical example
Assumptions: y k; s 0.3;
Year
Year kk yy cc ii kk kk
11 4.000
4.000 2.000
2.000 1.400
1.400 0.600
0.600 0.400
0.400 0.200
0.200
22 4.200
4.200 2.049
2.049 1.435
1.435 0.615
0.615 0.420
0.420 0.195
0.195
33 4.395
4.395 2.096
2.096 1.467
1.467 0.629
0.629 0.440
0.440 0.189
0.189
4 4.584 2.141 1.499 0.642 0.458 0.184

10 5.602 2.367 1.657 0.710 0.560 0.150

25 7.351 2.706 1.894 0.812 0.732 0.080

100 8.962 2.994 2.096 0.898 0.896 0.002


CHAPTER 7 9.000
Economic 3.000 I 2.100
Growth 0.900 0.900 0.000 32
NOW YOU TRY:
Solve for the Steady State
Continue to assume
s = 0.3, = 0.1, and y = k 1/2

Use the equation of motion

k = s f(k) k
to solve for the steady-state values of k, y, and c.
ANSWERS:
Solve for the Steady State
k 0 def. of steady state
s f (k *) k * eq'n of motion with k 0

0.3 k * 0.1k * using assumed values

k*
3 k*
k*

Solve to get: k * 9 and y * k * 3

Finally, c * (1 s )y * 0.7 3 2.1

 An increase in the saving rate
An increase in the saving rate raises investment
causing k to grow toward a new steady state:

Investment
and k
depreciation s2 f(k)

s1 f(k)

k
k1* k 2*
CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 35
 Prediction:

Higher s higher k*.

And since y = f(k) ,
higher k* higher y* .

Thus, the Solow model predicts that countries

with higher rates of saving and investment
will have higher levels of capital and income per
worker in the long run.

CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 36

 International evidence on investment
rates and income per person
Income per
person in
2003
(log scale)

Investment as percentage of output

(average 1960-2003)
 The Golden Rule: Introduction
Different values of s lead to different steady states.
How do we know which is the best steady state?
The best steady state has the highest possible
consumption per person: c* = (1s) f(k*).
An increase in s
leads to higher k* and y*, which raises c*
reduces consumptions share of income (1s),
which lowers c*.
So, how do we find the s and k* that maximize c*?

CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 38

 The Golden Rule capital stock

*
k gold the Golden Rule level of capital,
the steady state value of k
that maximizes consumption.
To find it, first express c* in terms of k*:
c* = y* i*
= f (k*) i*
In the steady state:
= f (k*) k* i* = k*
because k = 0.

CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 39

 The Golden Rule capital stock
steady state
output and
depreciation k*
Then,
Then, graph
graph
f(k*)
f(k and kk**,,
f(k**)) and
look
look forfor the
the
point
point where
where
*
the
the gapgap between
between c gold
them
them is is biggest.
biggest.
*
i gold k gold
*

*
y gold f (k gold
*
) *
k gold steady-state
capital per
worker, k*
CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 40
 The Golden Rule capital stock

f(k**)) kk**
cc** == f(k k*
is
is biggest
biggest wherewhere the the
slope
slope of of thethe f(k*)
production
production function function
equals
equals
the
the slope
slope of of the
the *
depreciation
depreciation line: line: c gold

MPK =
*
k gold steady-state
capital per
worker, k*
CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 41
 The transition to the
Golden Rule steady state
The economy does NOT have a tendency to
move toward the Golden Rule steady state.
Achieving the Golden Rule requires that
policymakers adjust s.
This adjustment leads to a new steady state with
higher consumption.
But what happens to consumption
during the transition to the Golden Rule?

CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 42

 Starting with too much capital

If k * k gold
*

then y
then increasing
increasing cc**
requires
requires aa fall
fall in
in s.
s.
c
In
In the
the transition
transition to
to
the
the Golden
Golden Rule,
Rule, i
consumption
consumption is is
higher
higher at at all
all points
points
in
in time.
time. t0 time

CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 43

 Starting with too little capital
If k * k gold
*

then
then increasing
increasing cc**
requires
requires an an y
increase
increase in in s.
s.
c
Future
Future generations
generations
enjoy
enjoy higher
higher
consumption,
consumption,
but
but the
the current
current i
one
one experiences
experiences
an
an initial
initial drop
drop t0 time
in
in consumption.
consumption.

CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 44

 Population growth
Assume the population and labor force grow
at rate n (exogenous):
L
n
L
EX: Suppose L = 1,000 in year 1 and the
population is growing at 2% per year (n = 0.02).
Then L = n L = 0.02 1,000 = 20,
so L = 1,020 in year 2.

CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 45

 Break-even investment

( + n)k = break-even investment,

the amount of investment necessary
to keep k constant.
Break-even investment includes:
k to replace capital as it wears out
n k to equip new workers with capital
(Otherwise, k would fall as the existing capital stock
is spread more thinly over a larger population of
workers.)

CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 46

 The equation of motion for k

With population growth,

the equation of motion for k is:

k = s f(k) ( + n) k

actual
break-even
investment
investment

CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 47

 The Solow model diagram
Investment,
k = s f(k) (
break-even +n)k
investment
( + n ) k

sf(k)

k* Capital per
worker, k
CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 48
 The impact of population
growth
Investment,
break-even ( +n2) k
investment
( +n1) k
An
An increase
increase in
in nn
causes sf(k)
causes anan
increase
increase in
in break-
break-
even
even investment,
investment,
leading to a lower
steady-state level
of k.

k2* k1* Capital per

worker, k
CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 49
 Prediction:
Higher n lower k*.
And since y = f(k) ,
lower k* lower y*.

Thus, the Solow model predicts that countries

with higher population growth rates will have
lower levels of capital and income per worker in
the long run.

CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 50

 International evidence on population
growth and income per person
Income per
person in
2003
(log scale)

Population growth
(percent per year, average 1960-2003)
 The Golden Rule with population
growth
To find the Golden Rule capital stock,
express c* in terms of k*:
c* = y* i*
= f (k* ) ( + n) k*
In
In the
the Golden
Golden
c* is maximized when Rule
Rule steady
steady state,
state,
MPK = + n the
the marginal
marginal product
product

or equivalently, of
of capital
capital net
net of
of
MPK = n depreciation
depreciation equals
equals
the
the population
population
Economic Growth I growth
CHAPTER 7
growth rate.
rate. 52
 Alternative perspectives on
population growth
The Malthusian Model (1798)
Predicts population growth will outstrip the
Earths ability to produce food, leading to the
impoverishment of humanity.
Since Malthus, world population has increased
sixfold, yet living standards are higher than ever.
Malthus neglected the effects of technological
progress.

CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 53

 Alternative perspectives on
population growth
The Kremerian Model (1993)
Posits that population growth contributes to
economic growth.
More people = more geniuses, scientists &
engineers, so faster technological progress.
Evidence, from very long historical periods:
As world pop. growth rate increased, so did rate
of growth in living standards
Historically, regions with larger populations have
enjoyed faster growth.
CHAPTER 7 Economic Growth I 54
 Chapter Summary
1. The Solow growth model shows that,
in the long run, a countrys standard of living
depends:
positively on its saving rate
negatively on its population growth rate
2. An increase in the saving rate leads to:
higher output in the long run
faster growth temporarily
but not faster steady state growth
 Chapter Summary
3. If the economy has more capital than the
Golden Rule level, then reducing saving will
increase consumption at all points in time,
making all generations better off.
If the economy has less capital than the
Golden Rule level, then increasing saving will
increase consumption for future generations,
but reduce consumption for the present
generation.