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It 0469 Neural Networks
It 0469 Neural Networks
Neuron:
A neuron nerve cell is an electricallyexcitable
cell that processes and transmits information by
electrical and chemical signaling. Chemical
signaling occurs via synapses, specialized
connections with other cells. Neurons connect
to each other to form networks.
Cell Body
Contains the nucleus
Dendrites
Receptive regions; transmit impulse to
cell body
Short, often highly branched
May be modified to form receptors
Axons
Transmit impulses away from cell body
Axon hillock; trigger zone
Where action potentials first develop
Hyperpolarization
Graded
potentials
decrease in
strength as
they spread out
from the point
of origin
Na+ and K+ channels are closed
Leakage accounts for small movements of Na+ and K+
Each Na+ channel has two voltage-regulated gates
Activation gates closed in the resting state
Inactivation gates open in the resting state
Some stimulus opens Na+ gates and Na+ influx occurs
K+ gates are closed
Na+ influx causes a reversal of RMP
Interior of membrane now less negative (from -70 mV -55 mV)
Threshold a critical level of depolarization (-55 to -50 mV)
At threshold, depolarization becomes self-generating
I.e., depolarization of one segment leads to depolarization in the next
If threshold is not reached, no action potential develops
Sodium inactivation gates close
Membrane permeability to Na+ declines to resting
levels
As sodium gates close, voltage-sensitive K+ gates open
K+ exits the cell and internal negativity of the resting
neuron
is restored
Potassium gates remain open, causing an excessive efflux
of K+
This efflux causes hyperpolarization of the membrane
(undershoot)
The neuron is insensitive to stimulus and depolarization
during this time
1 RESTING STATE
RMP = -70 mV
2 DEPOLARIZATION
Increased Na+ influx
MP becomes less negative
If threshold is reached,
depolarization continues
Peak reached at +30 mV
Total amplitude = 100 mV
3 REPOLARIZATION
Decreased Na+ influx
Increased K+ efflux
MP becomes more negative Blue line = membrane potential
4 HYPERPOLARIZATION Yellow line = permeability of
Excess K+ efflux membrane to sodium
Green line = permeability of
membrane to potassium
Illustration shows continuous
propagation of a nerve impulse
on an unmyelinated axon.
Action potentials occur
over the entire surface of the
axon membrane.
Most Na+ channels concentrated at nodes. No myelin present.
Leakage of ions from one node to another destabilize the second leading to
another action potential in the second node. And so on.
Repolarization
Restores the resting electrical conditions of the neuron
Does not restore the resting ionic conditions
Ionic redistribution back to resting conditions is
restored by the sodium-potassium pump
All-or-none principle.
No matter how strong
the stimulus, as long as
it is greater than
threshold, then an action
potential will occur.
The amplitude of the de-
polarization wave will be
the same for all action
potentials generated.
Sensitivity of area of the membrane
to further stimulation decreases for
a time
Parts
Absolute
Complete insensitivity exists to
another stimulus
From beginning of action potential
until near end of repolarization.
No matter how large the stimulus,
a second action potential cannot
be produced.
Has consequences for function of
muscle
Relative
A stronger-than-threshold stimulus
can initiate another action
potential
Faster in myelinated than in non-myelinated
In myelinated axons, lipids act as insulation (the
myelin sheath) forcing local currents to jump from
node to node
In myelinated neurons, speed is affected by:
Thickness of myelin sheath
Diameter of axons
Large-diameter conduct more rapidly than small-diameter. Large
diameter axons have greater surface area and more voltage-gated
Na+ channels
Type A: large-diameter (4-20 m), heavily myelinated.
Conduct at 15-120 m/s (= 300 mph).
Motor neurons supplying skeletal muscles and most sensory
neurons carrying info. about position, balance, delicate touch
Type B: medium-diameter (2-4 m), lightly myelinated.
Conduct at 3-15 m/s.
Sensory neurons carrying info. about temperature, pain, general
touch, pressure sensations
Type C: small-diameter (0.5-2 m), unmyelinated.
Conduct at 2 m/s or less.
Many sensory neurons and most ANS motor neurons to smooth
muscle, cardiac muscle, glands
All action potentials are alike (of the same
amplitude) and are independent of stimulus
intensity.
The amplitude of the action potential is the same
for a weak stimulus as it is for a strong stimulus.
So how does one stimulus feel stronger than
another?
Strongstimuli generate more action potentials
than weaker stimuli.
More action potentials stimulate the release of
more neurotransmitter from the synaptic knob
The CNS determines stimulus intensity by the
frequency of impulse transmission
Excitatory signal:
Opening of Na+ channels
Depolarizes membrane (-70 mV -60 mV)
Brings membrane closer to threshold
More likely to give rise to an action potential
Inhibitory signal
Opening of K+ channels
Hyperpolarizes the membrane (-70 mV -80 mV)
Takes membrane further from threshold
Less likely to give rise to an action potential
Excitatory postsynaptic
potential (EPSP)
Depolarization occurs and
response stimulatory
Depolarization might reach
threshold producing an action
potential and cell response
Inhibitory postsynaptic
potential (IPSP)
Hyperpolarization and
response inhibitory
Decrease action potentials by
moving membrane potential
farther from threshold
Individual EPSP has a small effect on
membrane potential
Produce a depolarization of about
0.5 mV
Could never result in an AP
Wji
Vik
F(wji xj
1. Apply input to Adaline input
2. Find the square error of current input
Errsq(k) = (d(k) - W x(k))**2
3. Approximate Grad(ErrorSquare) by
differentiating Errsq
approximating average Errsq by Errsq(k)
obtain -2Errsq(k)x(k)
Update W: W(new) = W(old) +
2mErrsq(k)X(k)
Repeat steps 1 to 4.
Structure of ADALINE
Structure of ALC(Adaptive Linear
Combiner)
ALC as a transversal Filter
Use of ADALINE in solving XOR problems
MDALINE Architecture
BPN Architecture
Image to ASCII Conversion using Neural
Network
Image to ASCII Conversion using
Neural Network (Cont.d)
What is Processing Element. How would you
relate the PEs with real neurons
Define Resting Potential. What is the average
refractory period of a neuron. Is it limited to
a particular value. If Yes mention How?
Differentiate Resting potential and action
potential
State Hebbs Learning Rule. Draw a sample
memory mapping diagram by your own.
How would you factor out the weight vector
from the exception value terms
What is the use of signal processing
techniques in neural networks
J. A. Freeman and D. M. Skapura, Neural Networks-
Algorithms, Applications and Programming Techniques,
Pearson Education( singapore) Pvt. Ltd., 1991.
(Chapters 1 &2)
psychology.about.com/od/biopsychology/f/neuron01.htm
www.cell.com/neuron
www.neurophys.com
faculty.washington.edu/chudler/chnt1.html