Introduction to Analog And Digital C

ommunications

Second Edition

Simon Haykin, Michael Moher

Chapter 5 Pulse Modulation :
Transition from Analog to Digital Commu
nications
1. Sampling Process
2. Pulse-Amplitude Modulation
3. Pulse-Position Modulation
4. Completing the Transition from Analog and Digital
5. Quantization Process
6. Pulse-Code Modulation
7. Delta Modulation
8. Differential Pulse-Code Modulation
9. Line Codes
10. Theme Examples
11. Summary and Discussion
 Some parameter of a pulse train is varied in accordance with the message
signal
Analog
Apulse modulation
periodic pulse train is used as the carrier wave
Some characteristic feature of each pulse is varied in a continuous manner in accord
ance with the corresponding sample value of the message signal
Digital pulse modulation
The message signal is represented in a form that is discrete in both time and amplitud
e
Its transmission in digital form as a sequence of coded pulse
Lesson1 : Given a strictly band-limited message signal, the sampling theorem
e mbodies the conditions for a uniformly sampled version of the signal to
preserv e its information content
Lesson2 : Analog pulse-modulation systems rely on the sampling process to
ma intain continuous amplitude representation of the message signal. In
contrast, di gital pulse-modulation system use not only the sampling process
but also the qu antization process. Digital modulation makes it possible to
exploit the full powe r of digital signal-processing techniques.

3

 5.1 Sampling Process
Instantaneous Sampling and Frequency-Domain Consequences
Sample the signal g(t) instantaneously and at a uniform rate,
Instantaneously (ideal) sampled signal
The signal obtained by individually weighting the elements of a periodic
sequence of Dirac delta functions :

s s
(5.1 Fig. 5.1
n
g(nT ) (t
g (t) )
nT ) listed at the bottom of the right-hand
Reproduce the relationships
side of the t able 5.1
The process of uniformly sampling a continuous time signal of finite energy
results in a periodic spectrum with a repetition frequency equal to the sampling
rate.

(5.2)
g(nT ) (t nT ) f G( f
n s s n
s g(nTs ) exp( j2nTs f ) G
mf s ) n
(f)
Table. 5.1

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Fig.5.1 Back Next

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table.5.1 Back Next

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 Sampling Theorem
A discrete-time Fourier transform of the
sequence

G ( f ) g n jnf (5.3)
exp
W
n
2W

s s
m
s

G ( f ) f G( f ) m0f G( f
mfunder
For a strictly band-limited signal, ) the two
conditions

1.G( f ) 0 for f W
2. f s 2W
G( f ) 2 G ( f ), W f W (5.4)
1 Fig. 5.2
1 W n
G( f )
g
exp
jWnf
, W f W (5.5)
2W n 2W
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Fig.5.2 Back Next

8

 The sequence {g(n/2W)} has all the information contained in g(t).

Reconstructing the signal g(t) from the sequence of sample

values.
g(t) G( f )
exp( j2
1
ft)df
W n jnf
g exp W exp( j2ft)df
W 2W n 2W

n 1

W
g(t) g
n 2W
W
exp j2f t n df


(5.6)
2W

2W
The interpolation formula for reconstructing the original signal g(t)
from the se quence of sample values {g(n/2W)} .

n
t (5.7)
g 2 W sin c(2Wt
g(t) n

n), 9

 The sampling theorem for strictly band-limited signals of
finite energy i n two equivalent parts
Analysis : A band-limited signal of finite energy that has no frequency
comp onents higher than W hertz is completely described by specifying the
values of the signal at instants of time separated by 1/2W seconds.
Synthesis : A band-limited signal of finite energy that has no
frequency com ponents higher than W hertz is completely recovered form
knowledge of its samples taken at the rate of 2W samples per second.

Nyquist rate
The sampling rate of 2W samples per second for a signal bandwidth
of W h ertz
Nyquist interval
1/2W (measured in seconds)

10

 Aliasing
Phenomenon
The phenomenon of a high-frequency component in the
spectrum of the signal seemingly taking on the identify of a lower
frequency in the spe ctrum of its sampled version.
To combat the effects of aliasing in practices
Prior to sampling : a low-pass anti-alias filter is used to attenuate those
hig h-frequency components of a message signal that are not essential to
the inf ormation being conveyed by the signal
The filtered signal is sampled at a rate slightly higher than the Nyquist
rate.
Fig. 5.3
Physically realizable reconstruction filter
The reconstruction filter is of a low-pass kind with a passband
extending fro m W to W
The filter has a non-zero transition band extending form W to fs-W

Fig. 5.4
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Fig.5.3 Back Next

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Fig.5.4 Back Next

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 5.2 Pulse-Amplitude Modulation
Pulse-Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
The amplitude of regularly spaced pulses are varied in proportion to
the corresponding sample values of a continuous message signal.
Two operations involved in the generation of the PAM signal
Instantaneous sampling of the message signal m(t) every Ts
seconds,
Lengthening the duration of each sample, so that it occupies some
finite val ue T.

14

Sample-and-Hold Filter :
Analysis
The PAM signal is

(5.8)
s(t)
nm(nTs )h(t nTs )

The h(t) is a standard rectangular pulse of unit amplitude and

duration
0tT
T 1,
t
1 t 0,t (5.9)
T T


,
h(t) rect 2 2 otherwise
The instantaneously sampled version of m(t)
is 0,

n
s s
(5.10)
m (t) m(nT ) (t
nT )
Fig. 5.5

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Fig.5.5 Back Next

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 To modify m(t) so as to assume the same form as the PAM
signal m (t) h(t) m ( )h(t )


d


m(nTs ) ( nTs )h(t )


d

n

m(nT )

s
nTs )h(t )

( n
d (5.11)


( nTs )h(t )d h(t nT
)
s

The PAM signal s(t) is mathematically equivalent to the convolution

of
m(t) , the instantaneously sampled version of m(t), and the pulse h(t)
s
n
s
(5.12)
m (t) h(t) m(nT )h(t
s(t) m (t) (5.13) nT ) s s
(5.15)
h(t)

k
S( f ) M ( f )H (5.14) S ( f ) s fM ( fM (kffs )H
M ( f ) (5.16)
(f) f k kf( )f )
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 Aperture Effect and its Fig. 5.6
Equalization
Aperture effect
The distortion caused by the use of pulse-amplitude modulation to transmit an
analo g information-bearing signal
Equalizer
Decreasing the in-band loss of the reconstruction filter as the frequency
increases
The amplitude response of the equalizer is
1 1 f Fig. 5.7

H T sin c( fT )
(f) sin(fT )
The noise performance of a PAM system can never be better than
direct transm ission of the message signal

For transmission over long distances, PAM would be used only as

a means of message processing for time-division multiplexing.

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Fig.5.6 Back Next

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Fig.5.7 Back Next

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 5.3 Pulse-Position Modulation
PDM (Pulse-duration modulation)
Pulse-width or Pulse-length modulation.
The samples of the message signal are used to vary the
duration of the i ndividual pulses.
PDM is wasteful of power

PPM (Pulse-position modulation)

The position of a pulse relative to its unmodulated time of occurrence
is varied in accordance with the message signal.

(5.18)
g(t nTs kpm(nTs ))
s(t) n

g(t) t (Ts / 2) k p m(t) max (5.19)

0,
k p m(t) max (Ts / 2) (5.20) Fig. 5.8

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Fig.5.8 Back Next

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 5.4 Completing the Transition from Analog to Digit
al
The advantages offered by digital pulse modulation
Performance
Digital pulse modulation permits the use of regenerative repeaters, when placed alon
g the transmission path at short enough distances, can practically eliminate the degr
ading effects of channel noise and signal distortion.
Ruggedness
A digital communication system can be designed to withstand the effects of channel
n oise and signal distortion
Reliability
Can be made highly reliable by exploiting powerful error-control coding
techniques.
Security
Can be made highly secure by exploiting powerful encryption algorithms
Efficiency
Inherently more efficient than analog communication system in the tradeoff between t
ransmission bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio
System integration
To integrate digitized analog signals with digital computer data
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 5.5 Quantization Process
Amplitude quantization
The process of transforming the sample amplitude m(nTs) of a
baseband signal m(t) at time t=nTs into a discrete amplitude v(nTs)
taken from a f inite set of possible levels.

I k :{mk m mk 1}, k 1,2,..., L

(5.21)
Representation level (or Reconstruction level)
Fig. 5.9
The amplitudes vk , k=1,2,3,,L
Quantum (or step-size)
The spacing between two adjacent representation
levels
v g(m) (5.22)

Fig. 5.10

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Fig.5.9 Back Next

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Fig.5.10 Back Next

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 5.6 Pulse-Code Modulation
PCM (Pulse-Code Modulation)
A message signal is represented by a sequence of coded pulses, which is
accom plished by representing the signal in discrete form in both time and
amplitude
The basic operation
Transmitter : sampling, quantization, encoding
Receiver : regeneration, decoding, reconstruction

Operation in the Transmitter

1. Sampling
1. The incoming message signal is sampled with a train of rectangular pulses
2. The reduction of the continuously varying message signal to a limited number of
discr ete values per second
2. Nonuniform Quantization
1. The step size increases as the separation from the origin of the input-output
amplitude characteristic is increased, the large end-step of the quantizer can take
care of possi ble excursions of the voice signal into the large amplitude ranges that
occur relativel y infrequently.
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 Compressor
A particular form of compression law :
-law
log(1
v (5.23)
mlog(1
) )
dm log(1 ) (5.24)
dv (1
-law is neither strictly linear nor strictly logarithmic
m)
A-law : Am
1
, 0m A
v 1 log (5.25)
A 1 1


1 log Am1
log(A Am )
,
1 log A 0m A
1
d m A
(5.26)
dv , Fig. 5.11
1
(1 log A) m , A m 1 28

Fig.5.11 Back Next

29

3. Fig. 5.12
Encoding
1. To translate the discrete set of sample vales to a more appropriate form of
si gnal
2. A binary code
The maximum advantage over the effects of noise in a transmission medium is ob
tained by using a binary code, because a binary symbol withstands a relatively hi
gh level of noise.
The binary code is easy to generate and regenerate
Table. 5.2

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Fig.5.12 Back Next

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table.5.2 Back Next

32

 Regeneration Along the Transmission Path
The ability to control the effects of distortion and noise produced by
transmitti ng a PCM signal over a channel
Equalizer
Shapes the received pulses so as to compensate for the effects of amplitude and
phase distortions produced by the transmission
Timing circuitry
Provides a periodic pulse train, derived from the received pulses
Renewed sampling of the equalized pulses
Decision-making device Fig. 5.13
The sample so extracted is compared o a predetermined
threshold
ideally, except for delay, the regenerated signal is exactly the same as the
infor mation-bearing signal
1. The unavoidable presence of channel noise and interference causes the repeater to
ma ke wrong decisions occasionally, thereby introducing bit errors into the
regenerated signal
2. If the spacing between received pulses deviates from its assigned value, a jitter is
intro duced into the regenerated pulse position, thereby causing distortion.
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Fig.5.13 Back Next

34

 Operations in the Receivers
1. Decoding and expanding
1. Decoding : regenerating a pulse whose amplitude is the linear sum of all
the pulses in the code word
2. Expander : a subsystem in the receiver with a characteristic
complementary to the compressor
1. The combination of a compressor and an expander is a compander

2. Reconstruction
1. Recover the message signal : passing the expander output through a low-
pas s reconstruction filter

35

 5.7 Delta Modulation
Basic Consideration
DM (Delta Modulation)
An incoming message signal is oversampled to purposely increase the
corre lation between adjacent samples of the signal
The difference between the input signal and its approximation is
quantized i nto only two levels - corresponding to positive and negative
differences

ee((nnTTss)) mm((nnTTss)) mmqq((nnTTss TTss)) ((5.22.5 77))

eq (nTs ) (5.28
sgn[e(nTs )] )
mq (nTs ) mq (nTs Ts ) eq (5.29)
(nTs )

Fig. 5.14

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Fig.5.14 Back Next

37

 System Details

Comparator

Computes the
difference
between its
two inpus

Quantizer
Consists of a hard limiter with an input-output characteristic that is a scaled
Fig. 5.15
mq of
version (nT mq function
thes )signum (nTs Ts ) eq (nTs )
Accumulator mq (nTs 2Ts ) eq (nTs Ts ) eq
Operates on the quantizer output so as to produce an approximation to the message
signal.
(nTs )

(5.30)
eq (iTs )
n
i1

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Fig.5.15 Back Next

39

 Quantization
Errors
Slope-overload distortion
The step size is too small for the staircase approximation to follow a
steep s egment of the original message signal
The result that the approximation signal falls behind the message signal

Granular noise
When the step size is too large relative to the local slope characteristic
of th e original message signal
The staircase approximation to hunt around a relatively flat segment
of the message signal.

Fig. 5.16

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Fig.5.16 Back Next

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Delta-Sigma Modulation (Sigma-delta
modulation)
A delta modulation system that incorporates integration at its input
Benefit of the integration
The low-frequency content of the input signal is pre-emphasized
Correlation between adjacent samples of the delta modulator input is
incre ased
Design of the receiver is simplified

Fig. 5.17

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Fig.5.17 Back Next

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 5.8 Differential Pulse-Code Modulation
Prediction
If we know the past behavior of a signal up to a certain point
in time, it is possible to make some inference about its future values
Fig. 5.18

Tapped-delay-line filter (discrete-time filter)

A simple and yet effective approach to implement the prediction filter
With the basic delay set equal to the sampling period
e(nTs ) m(nTs ) m(nTs Ts ) q(nTs (5.32
Fig. 5.19
Ts ) )
e(nTs ) m(nTs ) m(nTs ) (5.34)

The quantizer output may be expressed

as
eq (nTs ) e(nTs ) (5.35

q(nTs ) )
mq (nTs ) m(nTs ) eq (5.36) mq (nTs ) m(nTs ) e(nTs ) q(nTs (5.37)
(nTs ) (5.38) ) q (nTs ) m(nTs )
m (5.31
m (nT ) m(nT ) q(nTs ) ) 44
q s s

q(nT )
Fig.5.18 Back Next

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Fig.5.19 Back Next

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 Comparing the DPCM with DM
system,
The use of a one-bit (two-level) quantizer in the DM system
Replacement of the prediction filter in the DPCM by a single delay
element

Noise is concerned
DPCM, like DM, is subject to slope-overload distortion whenever the
input signal changes too rapidly for the prediction filter to track it
Like PCM, DPCM suffers from quantization noise

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 5.9 Line Codes
Several line codes
1. On-off signaling
2. Nonreturn-to-zero (NRZ)
3. Return-to-zero
4. Bipolar return-to-zero (BRZ)
5. Split-phase (Manchester code)
6. Differential encoding

Fig. 5.20

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 5.10 Theme Examples
Time-division Multiplexing
Enables the joint utilization of a common communication channel by
a plurality of independent message sources without mutual
interference a mong them
Highly sensitive to dispersion in the common channel a non-
constant magnitude response of the channel and a nonlinear phase
response.

Synchronization
Keep the same time as a distant standard clock at the transmitter
One possible procedure to synchronize the transmitter and receiver
cloc ks is to set aside a code element or pulse at the end of a frame and
to tra nsmit this pulse every other frame only

Fig. 5.21

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52

 Impulse
Radio
Information is sent by means of very narrow pulses that are widely
separated i n time
A form of a ultra-wideband (UWB) radio transmission

Gaussian monocycle
One type of pulse used for impulse radio
2 Fig. 5.22


v(t) A exp
t t (5.39)


Fig. 5.23

PPM is one method for digitally modulating such an impulse
wave

Fig. 5.24

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Fig.5.22 Back Next

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Fig.5.23 Back Next

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Fig.5.24 Back Next

56

 Good
aspect
The signal power is spread over a large bandwidth, the amount of
power th at falls in any particular narrowband channel is small
Bad aspect
The power falls in all such narrowband channel

Due to the limitation on transmit power,

Ultra-wideband radio is restricted to short-range applications ( less
than a few hundred meters )

57

 5.11 Summary and Discussion
Sampling : which operates in the time domain ;
The sampling process is the link between an analog waveform and its
discre te-time representation
quantization : which operates in the amplitude domain;
The quantization process is the link between an analog waveform and
its dis crete-amplitude representation
Sampling theorem
A strictly band-limited signal with no frequency components
higher tha n W Hz is represented uniquely by a 2W samples per
second.
The sampling process is basic to the operation of all pulse
modulation s ystems
Analog pulse modulation results from varying some parameter of
th e transmitted pulses
Digital pulse modulation systems transmit analog message signals
a s a sequence of coded pulses
58

 The advantage of DM (delta modulation) is simplified circuitry
Differential pulse-code modulation employs increased circuit
compl exity to improve system performance
Adaptivity
Is used in delta modulation to improve noise performance
Is used in differential pulse-code modulation to reduce
bandwidth requi rement
Pulse modulation
lossy in the sense that some information is lost as a result of
the signal r epresentation that they perform
Source-encoding strategies (PCM, DM, and DPCM)
Whose purpose is to convert analog signals into digital form

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Fig.5.25 Back Next

Fig. 5.25

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Fig.5.26 Back Next

Fig. 5.26
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Fig.5.27 Back Next

Fig. 5.27
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Fig.5.28 Back Next

Fig. 5.28
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Fig.5.29 Back Next

Fig. 5.29
64