Nuclear

Transformations
 2

Radioactivity

Radioactivity is the property of some

atoms that cause them to spontaneously
give off energy as particles or rays.

Radioactive atoms emit ionizing radiation

when they decay
 3

Naturally Occurring Elements

In nature there are about 300 nuclides

Majority of naturally occurring elements are stable

But
A few of high atomic weight, from polonium (Z =84)
onward Radium (88), Thorium (90), Uranium (92)
consists entirely of unstable nuclides
The unstable substances undergo spontaneous
change, radioactive disintegration or radioactive decay
at definite rates.
 2003 John Wiley and Sons Publishers
 2003 John Wiley and Sons Publishers
The activity of a radioactive sample is the rate at
which nuclei decay.

If N(t) is the number of nuclei present at a time t, then

the activity R is
dN
R =- .
dt

dN/dt is negative, so the activity is a positive quantity.

The SI unit of activity is the becquerel: 1 becquerel = 1

Bq = 1 event/second.

Another unit of activity is the curie (Ci) defined by

1 curie = 1 Ci = 3.70x1010 events/s = 37 GBq.
Law of Radioactive decay
Let N0 be the number of radioactive nuclei at t=0.

If a sample contains N undecayed nuclei at t=t, then

the number dN that will decay in the time dt

dN = - N dt . - Decay Constant
Units on sec-1

*Empirically: dN/N = -dt

This equation can be integrated to give

N = - N0e-t .
The half-life, T, is the time it takes for the activity to
drop by . We can find a relationship between and
T
N =:- N e-t.
0
N0/2=N0e-t

activity after T original activity

1 -
= e 1/2
2 The activity R or
A of a sample of N
+ 1/2
e =2 radioactive nuclei
is just
1/2 = ln 2 R or A = N.

ln 2 0.693
= =
1/2 1/2
Here's a plot of the activity of a radionuclide.
The initial activity
was chosen to be
1000 for this plot.

The half-life is 10
(in whatever time
units we are using).

All decay curves look like this; only the numbers on the
axes will differ, depending on the radionuclide (which
determines the half-life) and the amount of radioactive
material (which determines the initial activity).
 11

Half-Life
Radionuclide Half-Life
Phosphorus-32 14.3 days
Iridium-192 74 days
Cobalt-60 5.25 years
Caesium-137 30 years
Carbon-14 5760 years
Uranium-238 4.5 x 109 years
Uses of Nuclear Radiation/Energy
Radioactive Dating
Medicine
Chemotherapy
Diagnostic tracers
Agriculture
Irradiate food
Pesticide
Fertilizer evaluation
Energy
Fission
Fusion
Carbon Dating
 While alive, every being has a constant ratio of
C(14) to C(12)
Cause: absorption from the atmosphere
cosmic rays transform N(14) to C(14)
N(14) + N --> C(14) + P
the ratio of C(14) to other forms of carbon remains
constant during the lifetime of the object studied.

n C
 When Dead, no more absorption of carbon takes place
the C(14) begins its decay to N(14)

C(14) --> N(14)+ e

hence the ratios of C(12) to C(14) change

this change can be measured by

the rate of nuclear activity

C(14) has a half-life of only 5730 years, so only

very young things can be measured (~50000 yrs.)
Carbon-14 dating

22,920 years ago

17,190 years ago
11,460 years ago
5730 years ago
Present
Geological Dating
 12.3 Radioactive Series

Stable End
Series Parent Product
Half life (years)

thorium 90 Th 232
82 Pb 208
1.39x1010

neptunium 93 Np237 83 Bi209 1.39x1010

uranium 92 U239
82 Pb 206
1.39x1010

actinium 92 U235 82 Pb207 1.39x1010

The thorium
series.

note:

decay

decay

branch at
216
Po

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/nuclear/radser.html
Nuclear Fission & Fusion
History:
Hahn & Strassman (1939)

Bombarded Uranium-235 samples with neutrons

expecting the Uranium-235 to capture neutrons

Instead, the products showed different chemical

properties that they could not explain
Meitner & Frisch

Explained Hahn & Strassman results.

Instead of heavier Uranium, it had split

into smaller elements = Nuclear Fission
 Nuclear Fission

There are 2 types of fission that exist:

1. Spontaneous Fission

2. Induced Fission
 Spontaneous Fission
Some radioisotopes contain nuclei which are highly
unstable and decay spontaneously by splitting into 2
smaller nuclei.

Such spontaneous decays are accompanied by the

release of neutrons.
 Induced Fission
Nuclear fission can be induced by bombarding atoms
with neutrons.

The nuclei of the atoms then split into 2 equal parts.

Induced fission decays are also accompanied by the

release of neutrons.
 The Fission Process
A neutron travels at high speed towards a uranium-235
nucleus.

1 235
0 n 92 U
 The Fission Process
A neutron travels at high speed towards a uranium-235
nucleus.

1 235
0 n 92 U
 The Fission Process

A neutron travels at high speed towards a uranium-235

nucleus.

1 235
0 n 92 U
 The Fission Process
The neutron strikes the nucleus which then captures the
neutron.

1 235
0 n 92 U
 The Fission Process
The nucleus changes from being uranium-235 to
uranium-236 as it has captured a neutron.

236
92 U
 The Fission Process

The uranium-236 nucleus formed is very unstable.

It transforms into an elongated shape for a short time.

 The Fission Process
The uranium-236 nucleus formed is very unstable.

It transforms into an elongated shape for a short time.

 The Fission Process
The uranium-236 nucleus formed is very unstable.

It transforms into an elongated shape for a short time.

 The Fission Process
It then splits into 2 fission fragments and releases
neutrons.

1
0 n
141
56 Ba

1
0 n
92
36 Kr
1
0 n
 The Fission Process

It then splits into 2 fission fragments and releases

neutrons.
1
0 n
141
56 Ba

1
0 n

92
36 Kr
1
0 n
 The Fission Process
It then splits into 2 fission fragments and releases
neutrons.
1
0 n
141
56 Ba

1
0 n

92
36 Kr
1
0 n
 The Fission Process
It then splits into 2 fission fragments and releases
neutrons. 1
0n
141
56 Ba

1
0 n

92
36 Kr
1
 Nuclear Fission Examples

235 1 141 92 1

92
U + 0
n 56
Ba + 36
Kr + 3 0
n

235 1 138 96 1

92
U + 0
n 55
Cs + 37
Rb + 2 0
n
 Energy from Fission
Both the fission fragments and neutrons travel at high
speed.
The kinetic energy of the products of fission are far
greater than that of the bombarding neutron and target
atom.

EK before fission << EK after fission

Energy is being released as a result of the fission reaction.

 Energy from Fission
235 1 138 96 1

92
U + 0
n 55
Cs + 37
Rb + 2 0
n
Element Atomic Mass (kg)

92U 3.9014 x 10-25

235

55Cs 2.2895 x 10-25

138

37Rb 1.5925 x 10-25

96

0n 1.6750 x 10-27
1
 Energy from Fission
Calculate the total mass before and after fission takes place.

The total mass before fission (LHS of the equation):

3.9014 x 10-25 + 1.6750 x 10-27 = 3.91815 x 10-25 kg

The total mass after fission (RHS of the equation):

2.2895 x 10-25 + 1.5925 x 10-25 + (2 x 1.6750 x 10-27) = 3.9155 x 10-25 kg

 Energy from Fission

The total mass before fission = 3.91815 x 10-25 kg

The total mass after fission = 3.91550 x 10-25 kg

total mass before fission > total mass after fission

 Energy from Fission

mass difference, m = total mass before fission total mass after fission

m = 3.91815 x 10-25 3.91550 x 10-25

m = 2.65 x 10-28 kg

This reduction in mass results in the release of energy.

 Energy from Fission

Calculate the energy released from the following fission

reaction:
235 1 138 96 1
92 U + 0n 55Cs + 37Rb+ 20n
m = 2.65 x 10-28 kg E = mc2
c = 3 x 108 ms-1 E = 2.65 x 10-28 x (3 x 108)2
E = 2.385 x 10-11 J
 Energy from Fission
Each uranium-235 atom has a mass of 3.9014 x 10-25 kg.

The total number of atoms in 1 kg of uranium-235 can

be found as follows:

No. of atoms in 1 kg of uranium-235 = 1/3.9014 x 10-25

No. of atoms in 1 kg of uranium-235 = 2.56 x 1024 atoms

 Energy from Fission

If one uranium-235 atom undergoes a fission reaction

and releases 2.385 x 10-11 J of energy, then the amount of
energy released by 1 kg of uranium-235 can be
calculated as follows:

total energy = energy per fission x number of atoms

total energy = 2.385 x 10-11 x 2.56 x 1024

Total energy = 6.1056 x 1013 J
Nuclear Chain Reactions:
Nuclear fission releases more neutrons which trigger
more fission reactions
The number of ________
neutrons released determines the
success of a chain reaction
Nuclear Fission
In order to achieve a chain reaction there must be:

A sufficient mass.
A large concentration of fissionable nuclei

The critical mass is when the mass and concentration

are high enough to sustain a chain reaction.

A sub-critical mass is one that is too small to achieve

a chain reaction.
Applications of Controlling Chain
Reactions
1. Atomic Bomb (fission bomb) Triggering a chain reaction in
U-235 or Pu-239

Must have a minimum amount of radioactive isotope

CRITICAL MASS
to sustain a chain reaction =_________ _______

2. Nuclear Power Plants Convert heat energy from fission

electricity
chain reaction into __________.

Control chain reaction with ________

control _____
rods that
absorb ________
neutrons emitted after fission reaction.
Nuclear Fusion - Energy released when
two light nuclei combine or fuse

However, a large amount of energy is

required to start a fusion reaction:

repulsion forces
o Need this energy to overcome ________
of protons.
o Extremely high temperatures can provide start-up
energy.

More energy in fusing hydrogen that fission of uranium

Nuclear Fusion
Stars energy is produced
through fusion reactions
Fusion occurs until Fe is
produced because less energy
is released than required to
fuse Fe nuclei = _____ ____
____ Star burns out
Cold Fusion:
Efforts are being
made to start and
sustain a fusion
reaction at lower
temperatures, in
other words with a
lower amount of
input energy