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Chapter 7 Mechanical Properties
Chapter 7 Mechanical Properties
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
Stress and strain: What are they and why are
they used instead of load and deformation?
Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
Plastic behavior: At what point do dislocations
cause permanent deformation? What materials are
most resistant to permanent deformation?
Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?
Ceramic Materials: What special provisions/tests are
made for ceramic materials? 1
ELASTIC DEFORMATION
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch
return to
initial
F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic
2
PLASTIC DEFORMATION
(METALS)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared
plastic
elastic + plastic
F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic
plastic
3
ENGINEERING STRESS
Tensile stress, : Shear stress, :
Ft Ft F
Area, A Area, A Fs
Fs
Ft Ft
Fs F Ft
Ao Ao
original area
before loading Stress has units:
N/m2 or lb/in2
4
ENGINEERING STRAIN
Tensile strain: Lateral strain:
/2
L
L
Lo Lo wo
wo
/2
L /2 L /2
Shear strain:
/2
/2 /2
8
STRESS-STRAIN TESTING
Typical tensile specimen Typical tensile
test machine
load cell
Adapted from Fig. 6.2,
Callister 6e.
specimen
extensometer
M
Elastic Bulk P P
modulus, K:
V V P P
P= -K Vo
Vo -K pressure
test: Init.
1 vol =Vo.
Special relations for isotropic materials: Vol chg.
E E = V
G K
2(1 ) 3(1 2)
12
YOUNGS MODULI: COMPARISON
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
1200
Semicond
E ceramics
1000 Diamond
800
600
400 Tungsten
Si carbide
Al oxide C arbon fibers only
>E metals
Molybdenum Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum
Platinum
<111>
Si crystal
CFRE(|| fibers)* >>Epolymers
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold Glass-soda AFRE(|| fibers)*
60 Aluminum Glass fibers only
Magnesium, GFRE(|| fibers)*
40 Tin
Concrete
109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE *
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
10
8 CFRE( fibers)*
6 AFRE( fibers)*
Polyester
4 PET
PS
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4
0.2 LDPE
13
PLASTIC (PERMANENT)
DEFORMATION
(at lower temperatures, T < Tmelt/3)
Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed
p engineering strain,
plastic strain
15
YIELD STRENGTH, y
Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when p = 0.002
tensile stress,
y
engineering strain,
p = 0.002
16
YIELD STRENGTH: COMPARISON
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
2000
Steel (4140)qt
y(ceramics)
>>y(metals)
Hard to measure,
300
Al (6061)ag Room T values
Hard to measure,
20
LDPE
Tin (pure) 17
10
TENSILE STRENGTH, TS
Maximum possible engineering stress in tension.
TS
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
Callister 6e.
e n g in e e r in g
s tre s s
strain
Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation starts.
Polymers: occurs when polymer backbones are
aligned and about to break.
18
TENSILE STRENGTH:
Metals/
COMPARISON
Graphite/
Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
3000
Aramid fib
E-glass fib TS (ceram)
Tensile strength, TS(MPa)
smaller toughness-
unreinforced
polymers
21
HARDENING
An increase in y due to plastic deformation.
large hardening
y
1
y small hardening
0
Curve fit to the stress-strain response:
hardening exponent:
T C T
n n=0.15 (some steels)
to n=0.5 (some copper)
true stress (F/A) true strain: ln(L/Lo)
22
MEASURING ELASTIC MODULUS
Room T behavior is usually elastic, with brittle failure.
3-Point Bend Testing often used.
--tensile tests are difficult for brittle materials.
cross section
F
L/2 L/2 Adapted from Fig.
12.29, Callister 6e.
d R
b = midpoint
rect. circ.
deflection
Determine elastic modulus according to:
F F L3 F L3
x E
F 4bd3 12R 4
slope =
rect. circ.
cross cross
section section
linear-elastic behavior
23
MEASURING STRENGTH
3-point bend test to measure room T strength.
cross section F
L/2 L/2 Adapted from Fig.
d R 12.29, Callister 6e.
b
rect. circ.
max 24
TENSILE RESPONSE: ELASTOMER
CASE
(MPa)
60 xbrittle failure
Stress-strain curves
adapted from Fig.
15.1, Callister 6e.
Inset figures along
plastic failure elastomer curve
40 x (green) adapted from
Fig. 15.14, Callister
6e. (Fig. 15.14 is
from Z.D. Jastrzebski,
20 x The Nature and
elastomer Properties of
Engineering
final: chains Materials, 3rd ed.,
0
0 2 4 6 8
are straight,
still
John Wiley and Sons,
1987.)
cross-linked
initial: amorphous chains are Deformation
kinked, heavily cross-linked. is reversible!
26
TIME DEPENDENT DEFORMATION
Stress relaxation test: Data: Large drop in Er
(amorphous
--strain to and hold. for T > Tg. polystyrene)
--observe decrease in 105 rigid solid
Er (10s) (small relax) Adapted from Fig.
stress with time. in MPa 10
3 15.7, Callister 6e.
transition (Fig. 15.7 is from
A.V. Tobolsky,
tensile test 101 region Properties and
Structures of
o strain 10-1 Polymers, John
viscous liquid Wiley and Sons,
Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.
increasing hardness
Adapted from Fig. 6.18, Callister 6e. (Fig. 6.18 is adapted from G.F. Kinney, Engineering
Properties
and Applications of Plastics, p. 202, John Wiley and Sons, 1957.) 28
DESIGN OR SAFETY FACTORS
Design uncertainties mean we do not push the
limit. Often N is
Factor of safety, N y between
working 1.2 and 4
N
29
Thermal Expansion
Materials change size when temperature
is changed
Tinitial
initial
Tfinal > Tinitial
Tfinal
final
final initial
(Tfinal Tinitial )
initial
linear coefficient of
thermal expansion (1/K or 1/C)
25
Atomic Perspective: Thermal Expansion
Material (10-6/C)
Polymers at room T
Polypropylene 145-180 Polymers have larger
Polyethylene 106-198 values because of
Polystyrene 90-150 weak secondary bonds
Teflon 126-216
Metals Q: Why does
increasing
dimensional changes
Thermal stress
E l (T0 Tf ) E l T
28
SUMMARY
Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches y.
Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.