BEGINNING WITH

THE The Stack

Overflow

C
Dennis M. Ritchie
 INTRODUCTION

C programming language
Structured and disciplined approach to program design.

C is developed by Dennis Ritchie

C is a structured programming language
C supports functions that enables easy maintainability of code,
by breaking large file into smaller modules
Comments in C provides easy readability
C is a powerful language.
C programs built from
Variable and type declarations
Functions
Statements
Expressions
 PROGRAM STRUCTURE

A sample C Program

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
--other statements
}
 HEADER FILES

The files that are specified in the include

section is called as header file
These are precompiled files that has some
functions defined in them
We can call those functions in our program
by supplying parameters
Header file is given an extension .h
C Source file is given an extension .c
 MAIN FUNCTION

This is the entry point of a program

When a file is executed, the start point is
the main function
From main function the flow goes as per the
programmers choice.
There may or may not be other functions
written by user in a program
Main function is compulsory for any C
program
 RUNNING A C PROGRAM

Type a program
Save it
Compile the program This will generate an exe
file (executable)
Run the program (Actually the exe created out of
compilation will run and not the .c file)
In different compiler we have different option for
compiling and running. We give only the concepts.
 C LANGUAGE TOKENS

What are actually

tokens?
The smallest individual units in a C program
are known as tokens. In a C source program,
the basic element recognized by the
compiler is the "token." A token is source-
program text that the compiler does not
break down into component elements.
 TOKEN TYPES IN C

C has 6 different types of tokens viz.

1.Keywords [e.g. float, int, while]
2.Identifiers [e.g. main, amount]
3.Constants [e.g. -25.6, 100]
4.Strings [e.g. SMIT, year]
5.Special Symbols [e.g. {, }, [, ] ]
6.Operators [e.g. +, -, *]

C programs are written using these tokens and the general

syntax.
 THE KEYWORDS

"Keywords" are words that have special meaning to

theCcompiler.
Their meaning cannot be changed at any instance.
Serve as basic building blocks for program statements.
All keywords are written in only lowercase.
 KEYWORDS IN ANSI C

auto double register switch

break else return typedef
case enum short union
char etern signed unsigned
const float sizeof void
continue for static volatile
default goto struct while
do if int long
 THE IDENTIFIERS

They are programmer-chosen names to represent parts of the

program: variables, functions, etc.
Cannot use C keywords as identifiers
Must begin with alpha character or _, followed by alpha,
numeric, or _
Upper- and lower-case characters are important (case-
sensitive)
Must consist of only letters, digits or underscore ( _ ).
Only first 31 characters are significant.
Must NOT contain spaces ( ).
VALIDITY OF IDENTIFIERS (EXAMPLES)
 ABOUT CONSTANTS

Constants in C are the fixed values that do not change

during the execution of a program.
CONSTANTS

Numeric Character
constants constants

Real Single String

Integer Constant Character Constant
Constants s Constants s
 CONSTANTS EXAMPLES

Integer Constants
Refers to sequence of digits such as decimal integer, octal integer
and hexadecimal integer.
Some of the examples are 112, 0551, 56579u, 0X2 etc.
Real Constants
The floating point constants such as 0.0083, -0.78, +67.89 etc.

Single Character Constants

A single char const contains a single character enclosed within
pair of single quotes [ ]. For example, 8, a , i etc.
String Constants
A string constant is a sequence of characters enclosed in double
quotes [ ]; For example, 0211, Stack Overflow etc.
 DECLARATIONS

Constants and variables must be declared before

they can be used.
A constant declaration specifies the type, the
name and the value of the constant.
any attempt to alter the value of a variable
defined
as constant results in an error message by the
compiler
A variable declaration specifies the type, the
name and possibly the initial value of the
variable.

When you declare a constant or a variable, the

compiler:
1. Reserves a memory location in which to store
the value of the constant or variable.
2. Associates the name of the constant or
 WHAT ARE VARIABLES IN C?

A Variable is a data name that is used to store any data

value.
Variables are used to store values that can be changed
during the program execution.
Variables in C have the same meaning as variables in
algebra. That is, they represent some unknown, or variable,
value.

x=a+b
z + 2 = 3(y - 5)

Remember that variables in algebra are represented by a

single alphabetic character.
 NAMING VARIABLES

Variables in C may be given representations containing

multiple characters. But there are rules for these
representations.
Variable names in C
May only consist of letters, digits, and underscores
May be as long as you like, but only the first 31
characters are significant
May not begin with a number
May not be a C reserved word (keyword)
Should start with a letter or an underscore(_)
Can contain letters, numbers or underscore.
No other special characters are allowed including
space.
 NAMING CONVENTIONS

C programmers generally agree on the following

conventions for naming variables.
Begin variable names with lowercase letters
Use meaningful identifiers
Separate words within identifiers with underscores or
mixed upper and lower case.
Examples: surfaceArea surface_Area
surface_area
Be consistent while naming the variables!
Use all uppercase for symbolic constants (used in #define
preprocessor directives).
Examples:

#define PI 3.14159
#define AGE 52
 CASE SENSITIVITY

C is a case sensitive language.

It matters whether an identifier, such as a
variable name, is uppercase or lowercase.
Example:
area
Area
AREA
ArEa
are all seen as different variables by the compiler.
 DECLARING VARIABLES

Before using a variable, you must give the compiler

some information about the variable; i.e., you must
declare it.
The declaration statement includes the data
type of the variable.
Examples of variable declarations:
int length ;
float area ;
 DECLARATION (CONTD.)

Variables are not automatically initialized. For example,

after declaration
int sum;
the value of the variable sum can be anything (garbage).
Thus, it is good practice to initialize variables when they are
declared.
Once a value has been placed in a variable it stays there
until the program alters it.
 DATA TYPES IN ANSI C

There are three classes of data types here::

Primitive data types

int, float, double, char
Aggregate OR derived data types
Arrays come under this category
Arrays can contain collection of int or float or char or double data
User defined data types
Structures and enum fall under this category.
 DATA TYPES- DIFFERENT ATTRIBUTES

Type Size Representation Minimum range Maximum range

char, signed char 8 bits ASCII -128 127

unsigned char bool 8 bits ASCII 0 255
short, signed short 16 bits 2's complement -32768 32767
unsigned short 16 bits Binary 0 65535
int, signed int 16 bits 2's complement -32768 32767
unsigned int 16 bits Binary 0 65535
long, signed long 32 bits 2's complement -2,147,483,648 2,147,483,647
unsigned long 32 bits Binary 0 4,294,967,295
float 32 bits IEEE 32-bit 1.175495e-38 3.4028235e+38
double 32 bits IEEE 32-bit 1.175495e-38 3.4028235e+38
long double 32 bits IEEE 32-bit 1.175495e-38 3.4028235e+38
DATA TYPES : 1- INTEGER

An integer type is a number without a fractional

part.
Represents a signed integer of typically 4 or 8 bytes
(32 or 64 bits).
Precise size is machine-dependent.
Designed to hold whole numbers
Can be signed or unsigned:
12 -6 +3
Available in different sizes (number of bytes): short
int, int, and long int
Size of short int size of int size of long int
DECLARATION OF INTEGER VARIABLES

Declarations tell the compiler what variable

names will be used and what type of data each
can handle (store).

Variables of integer type can be defined

- On separate lines:
int length;
int width;
unsigned int area;
- On the same line:
int length, width;
unsigned int area;
 DATA TYPE: 2- CHARACTER

Represents a single byte (8 bits) of storage.

Used to hold characters like d or x etc..
Can be signed or unsigned
Internally char is just a number
Numerical value is associated with character via a character
set.
ASCII character set used in ANSI C
Numeric value of character is stored in memory:
MEMORY:
CODE:
letter
char letter;
letter = 'C'; 67
DECLARATION OF CHARACTER
VARIABLES
Variables of character type can be
defined:
- On separate lines:
char x;
- On the same line:
char x, y;
 CHARACTER DATA

A variable or a constant of char type can hold an ASCII

character.

When initializing a constant or a variable of char type, or when

changing the value of a variable of char type, the value is
enclosed in single quotation marks.

Examples:
const char star = '*';
char letter, one = '1';
 DATA TYPES: 3- FLOATING-POINT

A floating-point type is a number with a fractional

part
Represent typically 32 bit real numbers.
Designed to hold real numbers
12.45 -3.8
All numbers are signed.
Available in different sizes (number of bytes): float,
double, and long double
Size of float size of double
size of long double
DECLARATION OF FLOATING
POINT VARIABLES
Variables of floating point type can be
defined:
- On separate lines:
double x;
float y;
long double z;
- On the same line:
double x, y;
float y , e;
long double z , r;
 QUICK RESPONSE!

Question:
char ch= A;

what is the difference between:

1. printf(%c, ch);

2. printf(%d, ch);
Is void a kind of a data
type?
Yes or No??
 DATA TYPE: 6-VOID

The void data type has no

values and no operations.
Operators &
Expressions in C
Stack Overflow 2011
 ABOUT Operators and expressions

They decide the semantics of expression

Meaning of operator given in language system.

Expressions are formed by combining variables with
operators and ALWAYS return a single value in C.
i = 5;
i < j;
a = (a < b);

C supports a rich set of

operators that allow the
programmer to
manipulate variables
 Operators- Types
Arithmetic Operators (+, -, *, /, %)
Relational Operators (<, >, <=, >=, ==, !=)
Logical Operators (&&, ||, !)
Bitwise Operators (&, |)
Assignment Operators (=)
Increment/Decrement Operators.
Conditional Operators.
Special operators.
 ARITHMETIC OPERATORS
Used for performing numeric calculations
Arithmetic calculations
Use * for multiplication and / for division
Integer division truncates remainder
7 / 5 evaluates to 1
Modulus operator(%) returns the remainder
7 % 5 evaluates to 2
Operator precedence
Some arithmetic operators act before others (i.e., multiplication
before addition)
Use parenthesis when needed
Example: Find the average of three variables a, b and c
Do not use: a + b + c / 3
Use: (a + b + c ) / 3
Arithmetic Operators (Contd.)
Arithmetic
Operators::
 Arithmetic Operators (Contd.)
RULES OF OPERATOR PRECEDENCE::
Operator(s) Operation(s) Order of evaluation (precedence)
() Parentheses Evaluated first. If the parentheses are nested, the
expression in the innermost pair is evaluated first. If there
are several pairs of parentheses on the same level (i.e.,
not nested), they are evaluated left to right.
*, /, or % Multiplication,Divi Evaluated second. If there are several, they are
sion, Modulus evaluated left to right.
+ or - Addition Evaluated last. If there are several, they are
Subtraction evaluated left to right.
 Arithmetic (summary)
Five simple binary arithmetic operators
1. + plus c = a + b
2. - minus c = a - b
3. * times c = a * b
4. / divided by c = a/b
5. % modulus c = a % b

Q. What are the values of c in each case above if

1. int a = 10, b = 2;
2. float a = 10, b = 2;
3. int a = 10; float b = 2; ??
 Relational Operators
Six basic operators for comparison of values in C. These are
typically called relational operators:
1. > greater than
2. < less than
3. >= greater than or equal to
4. <= less than or equal to
5. == is equal to
6. != is NOT equal to
A relational operator compares two values of C built
in data types such as char, int, float
Relational operators return Boolean values:
0 if relation is FALSE
1 if relation is TRUE
Relational (contd.)
 Relational (contd.)
Example:
int x=44;
int y=12;
(x == y) // false... Returns 0
(x >= y) // true... Returns 1
(x != y) // true ... Returns 1
Relational Operator Compliments

Among the six relational operators, each one is the

compliment of another operator such as,
> is compliment of <=
< is compliment of >=
== is compliment of !=
 LOGICAL OPERATORS
Logical Operators are used to create compound expressions
There are three logical operators in C
1. || logical OR
A compound expression formed with || evaluates to 1 (true) if
any one of its components is true
2. && logical AND
A compound expression formed with && evaluates to true if
all of its components are true
3. ! logical NOT is used to define a compliment of any given
expression or value or variable

Logical operators, like relational operators, are typically used in

conditional expressions
1. if ( (a == 1) && (b < 3) || (c == 1) ) etc.
However, these can also be used in regular expressions
Logical operator- Truth Table
Operand-1 Operand-2 Op1 && Op2 Op1 | | Op2
(Op1) (Op2) (Logical AND) (Logical OR)
Non-zero value Non-zero value 1 1

Non-zero value 0 0 1

0 Non-zero value 0 1

0 0 0 0

Some examples of Logical operators can be::

1.if( age> 55 && salary < 1000)
2.If (number <0 || number >1000)
 Relative Precedence
The relative precedence of the relational as well as
logical operators is as follows::
HIGHEST !
> >= < <=
== !=
&&
LOWEST | |
 ASSIGNMENT OPERATORS
The operator symbol is the equal sign ( = )
The expression on the right-hand side is evaluated and assigned to
the left-hand variable.
int x = 9;

Assignment operators are used to assign the result of an expression to

a variable. C provides the facility of shorthand assignment operators
of the form::
variable op= expression

Some examples are::

x= x+y can be written as x+=y
a=a*(n+1) can be written as a *= n+1
z= z%d can be written as z%=d
INCREMENT/DECREMENT OPERATORS
In C, we have 2 very useful operators called the
increment & decrement operators:
Increment : ++ adds 1 to the operand
Decrement : -- subtracts 1 from the operand
Both the operators are unary and take the following
form::

++x; OR x++;
--y; OR y--;
Rules for ++ and operators
++ and are unary operators; they require variable as their
operands.
When postfix ++ (or ) is used with a variable in an exp., the
expression is evaluated first using the original value of the
variable and then the variables value is accordingly incremented
or decremented.
When prefix ++ (or ) is used with a variable in an exp.,
firstly, the variables value is accordingly incremented or
decremented and then the expression is evaluated using the new
value of the variable.

The precedence and associativity if ++ & are same as that of

unary + and unary .
 CONDITIONAL OPERATORS

The operators ? and : are called conditional operators as

they are used to test the conditions in the conditional
expressions.
Conditional expression ::
Format: <Expression 1> ? <Expression 2> : <Expression 3>
Example:
x ? y : z
Test True False
Condition expression expression
Use of Conditional Operators
Now consider
Consider the
these
following statements:
statements:
a= 80; a=80;
b= 95; b=95;
if(a>b) z= (a>b) ? a : b;
z=a;
else Both the statements are
resulting the same values.
z=b; This is an example of
usage of conditional
expressions
 BITWISE OPERATORS
Perform bitwise logical operations across individual bits of a value.
AND &
OR | x : 1 0 1 0 (binary)
XOR (exclusive OR) ^ y : 1 1 0 0 (binary)
NOT ~ x & y : 1 0 0 0 (binary)
(1s complement)
x | y : 1 1 1 0 (binary)

Shifts are bitwise operators x ^ y : 0 1 1 0 (binary)

SHIFT LEFT << ~x : 0 1 0 1 (binary)
SHIFT RIGHT >>
x << y shift x y-places to the left (add zeros)
x >> y shift x y-places to the right (sign extend)
 THE COMMA ( , ) OPERATOR
This operator is used to link the related expressions together
A comma-linked expression is evaluated from left to right &
the value of the right most expression is the value of combined
expression. Say,
val = ( x=10, y=5, x+y)
x is firstly assigned the value as 10, then y is assigned as 5 and then 15
(10+5) is being assigned to the val
This operator is used in for loops, while loops etc.
FOR loop
for(i=0, j=1; i<=10 ; i++, j++);
WHILE loop
while(c =getchar(), c!= 20)
Interchanging values
z=a, a=b, b=z;
 THE SIZEOF OPERATOR
The sizeof operator is used with an operand to return the number
of bytes the operand occupies. The operand may be a variable, a
constant or a data type qualifier.
Its a compile time operator.
Mainly used to find the length of arrays and structs when their
sizes are unknown.
Also used to allocate memory spaces dynamically to different
variables while any program execution.
For example::
k= sizeof (sum);
j= sizeof(long int);
w= sizeof(32767);
Rules of Precedence & Associativity
Precedence rule decides the order in
which different operators are
applied.

Associativity rule decides the order in

which multiple occurrences of the
same operator are applied.
OPERATOR PRECEDENCE/ASSOCIATIVITY
OPERATORS (precedence from HIGHER to LOWER) ASSOCIATIVITY
( ) [ ] -> . left to right
! ~ ++ -- + - * & (type) sizeof right to left
* / % left to right
+ - left to right
<< >> Bitwise left to right
< <= > >= Relational left to right
== != Relational left to right
& Bitwise left to right
Bitwise
^ left to right
Bitwise
| left to right
&& Logical left to right
Logical
|| left to right
?: right to left
= += -= *= /= %= &= ^= |= <<= >>= right to left
, left to right