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What is psychology?
What is Psychology?

Psychology is defined as the scientific study

of behavior and mental processes.

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Psychology as a Science
Theories:
Formulations of apparent relationships
among observed events.
Theories allow for prediction.

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What Psychologists do
Pure research
no immediate application, research for its own sake
Applied research
designed to find solutions to specific personal or social
problems
Practice psychology
applying psychological knowledge to
help individuals change their behavior
Teaching
sharing psychological knowledge.

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Fields of Psychology

What you want to be?

Fields of Psychology
Clinical psychologists:
Help people with psychological disorders
adjust to the demands of life
Largest subgroup of psychologists

Counseling psychologists:
Similar to clinical psychologist but
clients typically have adjustment
problems and not serious
psychological disorders
More than half of all doctoral
students are in programs of clinical
or counseling
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Fields of Psychology
School psychologists:
Employed by school systems to assist
students with problems that interfere
with learning.
One focus is that of placement of
students in special classes
Educational psychologists:
Like school psychologists.
Attempt to facilitate learning but focus on course
planning, instructional methods.
Focus on motivation, intelligence, testing, and
student and teacher behavior.

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Fields of Psychology
Developmental psychologists:
Study the changes, physical, cognitive, social
and personality, that occur throughout the life
span.
Personality psychologists:
Focus on identifying and measuring human
traits, determining influences on human
thought processes, feelings, and behavior and
explaining psychological disorders.
Social psychologists:
Primarily concerned with individuals thoughts,
feelings, and behavior in social situations.

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Fields of Psychology
Environmental psychologists:
Study how people and environment influence
each other and
Study ways to encourage recycling, for
example.
Experimental psychologists:
Conduct experiments, and
Specialize in basic processes such as the
nervous system, sensation and perception,
learning and memory, thought, motivation,
and emotion.
Industrial psychologists:
Focus on the relationship between people and
work.
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Fields of Psychology
Organizational psychologists:
Focus on the relationship between people
and organizations such as business.
Human factors psychologists:
Provide suggestions and create technical
systems such as dashboards, computer
keyboards, etc. to be more user friendly.

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Fields of Psychology
Consumer psychologists:
Study the behavior of shoppers in an effort to
predict and influence their behavior.
Health psychologists:
Examine the ways in which behavior and
mental processes are related to health.
Sport psychologists:
Help people improve their sports performance.

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Philosophical
Contributions
Philosophical Contributions
Plato (ca.427-347 BC)
Recorded Socrates
advice to Know Thyself
which is a motto of
psychology.
Also advanced Socrates
suggestion of relying on
rational thought and
introspection.

Democritus (around 400

BC)
Suggested that we could
think of behavior in
terms of a body and
mind (interaction of biological
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and mental processes).
Philosophical Contributions
Aristotle: (384-322 BC)

Wrote About the

Psyche covering
topics such as
personality,
sensation,
perception, thought,
intelligence, needs,
motives, feelings,
emotions and
memory.
A proponent of
empiricism.
(experimentation)
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19th Century
Contributions
19th Century Contributions
Gustav Theodore Fechner (1801-1887)
Showed how physical events (light and sounds) are
related to psychological sensations and perceptions.
Some consider this to be the beginning of psychology.
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)
Gets the credit for being the founder of psychology.
In 1879 he established the first psychological laboratory
in Leipzig, Germany.

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Structuralism and
Functionalism
Structuralism
Attempts to break conscious experience down into
objective sensations such as sight, or taste, and
the subjective feelings such as emotional responses.
Believes that the mind functions by combining objective
and subjective elements of experience.
Wundt was considered to be a Structuralist.
Functionalism
In the study of individuals the focus should be on
behavior as well as the mind and consciousness.
Look at how experience helps us function more
adaptively in our environments.
William James (1842-1919) is often considered the
first true American Psychologist.

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Behaviorism: Practicing Psychology in
Public
John Broadus Watson (1878-1958)
Considered to be the founder of American Behaviorism.
Believed that psychology should limit itself to
observable, measurable events and behavior.
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
Believed organisms learn to behave in certain ways
because of reinforcement.

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Gestalt Psychology: Making
Psychology Whole
Gestalt translates to pattern or organized
whole.
Demonstrated that learning is a accomplished by
insight, not by mechanical repetition.
Founders included:
Wertheimer (1880-1943),
Koffka (1886-1941), and
Kohler (1887-1967).

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Gestalt Psychology
The Importance of Context.
Gestalt psychologists have shown that our perceptions depend not only
on our sensory impressions but also on the context of our impressions.
You will interpret a man running toward you very differently depending
on whether you are on a deserted street at night or the beach in the
morning.

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Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt Psychology
Psychoanalysis: Digging beneath the
surface
Focus on the unconscious - a seething cauldron of
conflicting impulses, urges and wishes.
Founded by Sigmund Freud
Often called psychodynamic

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Todays Psychologists
Todays Psychologists
Evolutionary and Biological Perspectives
Focus on the evolution of behavior and mental
processes.
Much like Darwin, believe that inherited tendencies
move us in certain directions.

Cognitive Perspective: Keeping Psychology In Mind

Mental processes to understand human nature
How we perceive, learn, remember problem solve, etc.
(the mind)
Roots in Socrates, know thyself

Humanistic-Existential Perspective
Humanistic stresses the human capacity for self-
fulfillment
Existentialism views people as free to choose and as
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being responsible for choosing ethical conduct.
Todays Psychologists
Psychodynamic Perspective
1940s-50s
Sigmund Freud
Neoanalysts Karen Horney and Erik Erikson
Perspectives on Learning
Effects of experience on behavior
Theory 1 people do things because of learning history,
situations, and rewards. (Watson)
Theory 2 people modify and create their own
environments and engage in intentional learning by
observing others. (Social Learning)
The Sociocultural Perspective
Ways people differ
Influences of ethnicity, gender, culture and
socioeconomic factors
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Evolutionary and Biological
Perspectives
Focus on the evolution of behavior and mental
processes.
Genes can be transmitted from generation to
generation.
Biological perspective seek the links between the
electrical and chemical activity of the brain.
Use of PET and CAT scans.

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 Cognitive Perspective
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Venture into the realm of mental processes to

understand human nature.
Cognitive psychologists study those things we
refer to as the mind.

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Humanistic-Existential
Perspective
Humanism
stresses the human
capacity for self-
fulfillment.

Existentialism
views people as free to
choose and be
responsible for choosing
ethical conduct.

Stress the importance of

subjective experience.
Abraham Maslow and Carl
Rogers; two prominent
psychologists in this area.

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Psychodynamic Perspective
Freuds influence continues to be felt though
contemporary psychodynamic theorists would likely
call themselves neoanalysts.
Famous neoanalysts include:
Karen Horney (1885-1952)
Erik Erikson (1902-1994)
Former APA president
Dorothy Cantor.

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Perspectives on Learning
Learning through repetition and reinforcement.
Social-cognitive theorists
formerly termed social learning theorists
suggest that people can modify or even create their
environments.
Intentional learning by observing others.

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Sociocultural Perspective
Addresses the ways people differ from one
another.
Studies the influences of ethnicity, gender,
culture, and socioeconomic status on behavior
and mental processes.
Ethnicity
Ethnic groups are united by their cultural heritage, race,
language, and common history.
Study cultural heritages and ethnic differences in vulnerability to
problems.

Gender
Refers to the culturally defined concepts of masculinity and
femininity.
Involves a complex web of cultural expectations and social roles.

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Ethnicity and Gender
Gender, Ethnicity, and Psychology
Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930)
Studied at Harvard, completed her degree
requirements, but Harvard wouldnt give her the
degree. They were not admitting women.
Pioneer in research in memory: primacy and recency
effect.
Became first female president of APA in 1905.

Christine Ladd-Franklin (1847-1930)

Taught at Johns Hopkins and Columbia Universities.
Formulated a theory of color vision.
Margaret Floy Washburn (1871-1939)
First woman to receive a Ph.D. in psychology.
Wrote The Animal Mind a work that would later become
part of behaviorism.

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Gender, Ethnicity, and Psychology
Helen Bradford Thompson (1874-1947)
First psychologist to study psychological gender
differences.
Wrote a book in 1903 titled The Mental Traits of Sex.

Today more than half of American college

students are women.
Nearly 3/4 of the undergraduate degrees in
psychology and 2/3 of the doctoral degrees are
earned by women.

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Ethnicity and Psychology
1901 Gilbert Haven Jones, an African American,
received his Ph.D. in psychology in Germany.
Kenneth Clark and Mamie Philips Clark.
Jorge Sanchez was among the first to show how
intelligence tests are culturally biased.
6% of first year doctoral students are African
American, 6% are Asian American, 5% are Latino
and about 1% are Native American.

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Critical
Thinking
and
Critical Thinking & Pseudoscience
Pseudoscience: false science.
Critical thinking: taking nothing for granted.
Thoughtfully analyzing and probing questions,
statements and arguments of others.
Skills needed for critical thinking:
Development of skepticism
Ability to inquire about cause and effect
Increase curiosity about behavior
Knowledge of research methods
Ability to analyze arguments carefully

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Principles of Critical Thinking
Be skeptical.
Examine definitions of terms.
Examine the assumptions or premises of
arguments.
Be cautious in drawing conclusions from
evidence.
Consider alternative interpretations of research
evidence.
Do not oversimplify.
Do not overgeneralize.

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Critical Thinking Task
Is
square
A and
B the
same
color?

Explain
your
answer.
The Scientific Method
The Scientific Method
Scientific method is an
organized way of using
experience and testing
ideas in order to expand
and refine knowledge.
Hypothesis: is a specific
statement about behavior
or mental processes that
is tested through
research.
Test the hypothesis
through controlled
methods such as the
experiment.
Replication: repeating a
Chapterstudy
one to see if the
findings hold up over
 The Scientific Method
a. A systematic way of
organizing and expanding
scientific knowledge.
b. Daily experiences, common
beliefs, and scientific
observations all contribute
to the development of
theories.
c. Psychological theories
explain observations and
lead to hypotheses about
behavior and mental
processes.
d. Observations can confirm
the theory or lead to its
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refinement or
Samples and Populations
Sample
Individuals from a segment of the population who are studied.
Population
Group targeted for study.
Types of Sampling
Random sample:
each member of the population has an equal chance of
being selected to participate.
Stratified sample:
selection is made so that identified subgroups in the
population are represented proportionately in the sample.

Volunteer bias:
people who volunteer as participants differ systematically
from people who do not.

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Methods of Observation
The Case Study
Information collected about individuals and small
groups.
Anecdotes (Typically unscientific accounts of peoples
behavior.)
Compelling portraits but may have factual inaccuracies.

The Survey
Used to study individuals who cannot be observed in
the natural setting or studied scientifically.
Employs questionnaires and interviews or public
records.
Naturalistic Observation
Observe people in their natural habitats.
Unobtrusive measures are used to avoid
interfering with the observed behaviors.

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Correlation
Investigates whether one observed behavior or
trait is related to (correlated) with another.
Mathematically expressed as a correlation
coefficient; a number the varies between +1.00
and -1.00.
Positive correlation: the higher scores on one variable
tend to correspond with higher scores on the second
variable. Low with low. (e.g. Intelligence test scores
and academic performance).
Negative correlation: Higher scores on one variable
tend to correspond with lower scores on the second.
(e.g. Amount of stress experienced and functioning of
How things are Related
the immune system).

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Correlation
 Correlational Relationships, Cause, & Effect

Correlational relationships may suggest but do not

demonstrate cause and effect.
Consider the examples of academic grades (X) and juvenile
delinquency (Y) in part B. Do poor grades lead to delinquency, Does
delinquency lead to poor grades, or do other variables such as broken
home or peer influences contribute to poor grades and delinquency.
Experiments
The preferred method for answering questions
about cause and effect. Involves Independent and
Dependent Variables.
Independent variable:
manipulated by the experimenters so that the effects of
various levels may be determined.

Dependent variable:
the measured outcome or result.

Experimental and Control Groups

Experimental groups obtain the treatment.
Control groups do not receive the treatment.

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Experiments
Placebo or sugar pill
Blind study:
control for the expectations of effects by
creating conditions where the subjects are
unaware of the treatment
Double blind study:
neither the subjects nor the experimenters
know who has obtained the treatment

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 Experiments

Figure 1.7 The Experimental Conditions in the Lang Study. The taste of vodka cannot be discerned when
vodka is mixed with tonic water. For this reason it was possible for subjects in the Lang study on the effects of
alcohol to be kept blind as to whether or not they had actually drunk alcohol. Blind studies allow psychologists
to control for the effects of subjects expectations.

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Ethical Issues
Ethical Issues in Research &
Practice
Basic standards
Intended to promote individual dignity, human welfare
and scientific integrity.
Do not undertake research methods that are harmful.

Research with Humans

Ethics review committees review research according to
ethical guidelines.
Informed consent: individuals give consent before they
can participate in research.
Confidentiality is kept.

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Controversy in Psychology
Is it ethical for psychologist to deceive
research participants about the methods and
objectives of their research?
APAs Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of
Conduct
May deceive only when the benefits of the research
outweigh the potential harm.
The individuals would have been willing to participate if
they had understood the benefits.
Subjects are debriefed
(the purposes and methods of the research are explained afterward.)

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 Research with Nonhuman
Animalsgeneralize to humans the results of
Psychologists
research conducted with animals.
Animals may be harmed only when there is no
alternative; when the researchers believe that the
benefits justify the harm.

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 Questions
&
Comment
s
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