BASEBAND DEMODULATION/

DETECTION
Chapter-3
Part-I

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 In baseband signaling, the received waveform is already
in pulse like form then why Demodulator is needed?
Baseband pulses are not the ideal pulse shapes, each
one occupying its own symbol interval. The filtering at
the transmitter and the channel typically cause the
received pulse sequences to suffer from ISI and thus
appear as an amorphous smeared signal.

Goal of demodulator
To provide best possible SNR
Free of an ISI

Equalization is used for this purpose. It makes use of

sophisticated signal processing techniques to
compensate for channel induced interference.

Baseband demodulation
Recover the received baseband signal from distortions
caused by noise and inter symbol interference (ISI)

2
 Equivalence theorem
The following two operations are equivalent
performing bandpass linear signal processing;
converting the processed signal to baseband.
converting the received signal to baseband;
performing baseband linear signal processing.

Its usually more expensive to perform bandpass linear

signal processing.
Baseband demodulation/detection can be used for both
bandpass system and baseband system.

Simulation of communication system is usually performed in

baseband only
Faster simulation
Yields the same result
 The task of the detector is to retrieve the bit
stream from the received waveform as error
free as possible
Major sources of error
Thermal noise (AWGN)
disturbs the signal in an additive fashion
(Additive)
has flat spectral density for all frequencies of
interest (White)
is modeled by Gaussian random process
(Gaussian Noise)
Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI)
Due to the filtering effect of transmitter, channel
and receiver, symbols are smeared.

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 For any binary channel, the transmitted signal over a
symbol interval (0,T) is:
s1 (t ) 0 t T for a binary 1
si (t )
s2 (t ) 0 t T for a binary 0
The received signal r(t) degraded by noise n(t) and
possibly degraded by the impulse response of the
channel
r (t )hc(t),
s (is
t ) * h (t ) n(t ) i 1,2
i c

Where n(t) is assumed to be zero mean AWGN process

For ideal distortionless channel where hc(t) is an

impulse function and convolution with hc(t) produces
no degradation, r(t) can be represented as:
r (t ) si (t ) n(t ) i 1,2 0t T

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The recovery of signal at the receiver consist of two
parts:
1. Waveform-to-sample transformation
Demodulator followed by a sampler
At the end of each symbol duration T, predetection point
yields a sample z(T), called test statistic
z (T ) ai (t ) n0 (t ) i 1,2 (3.3)

Where ai(T) is the desired signal component,

and no(T) is the noise component

2. Detection of symbol
Assume that input noise is a Gaussian random
process and receiving filter is linear, then output is
another Gaussian random
process2

1 1 n0
p (n0 ) exp
0 2 2 0 (3.4)

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 The conditional pdfs can be expressed as

1 1 z a1
2

p( z | s1 ) exp
0 2 2 0

1
1 z a2
2

p ( z | s2 ) exp
0 2 2 0
Where 0 2 is the noise variance
P(z|S1) called the likelihood of S1, illustrates the pdf of
the random variable z(T), given that symbol s1 was
transmitted
After a received waveform has been transformed to a
sample, the actual shape of the waveform is no longer
important
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 Since z(T) is a voltage signal that is proportional to the energy of the received symbol, the larger the
magnitude of z(T), the more error free will be the decision making process
Detection is performed by choosing the hypothesis

Choosing H1 is deciding that signal s1(t) was sent and hence a binary 1 is detected and vice versa.
If z(T)= , the detection can be an arbitrary one.
H1

z(T )
0
H0

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 What is a signal space?
Vector representations of signals in an N-
dimensional orthogonal space
Why do we need a signal space?
It is a mean to convert signals to vectors
and vice versa.
It is a mean to calculate signals energy and
Euclidean distances between signals.
Why are we interested in Euclidean
distances between signals?
For detection purposes: The received signal
is transformed to a received vector. The
signal which has the minimum distance to
the received signal is estimated as the
transmitted signal.
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 Define an N-dimensional orthogonal space as a space
characterized by a set of N linearly independent
function { j(t)}, called basis functions. Any arbitrary
function in the space can be generated by a linear
combination of these basis functions. The basis
functions must satisfy the conditions.

T

0
j (t ) k (t )dt K j jk 0t T j , k 1,..., N

Where the operator jk is called the Kronecker delta

function.
1 for j k
jk {
0 otherwise

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 The principle requirement of orthogonality
is stated as:
Each j (t ) function of the set of basis function
must be independent of the other members of
set. j (t )
Each must not interfere with any other
members of the set in the detection process.
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 When the Kj constants are nonzero, the signal space
is called orthogonal. When the basis functions are
normalized so that each Kj=1, the space is called an
orthonormal space.

If j(t) corresponds to a real-valued voltage or current

waveform component, associated with a 1- resistive
load, then the normalized energy in joules dissipated
in the load in T seconds, due to j is.
T
E j 2j (t ) dt K j
Euclidean distance
0 measurements, fundamental to
the detection process, are easily formulated in such
an Orthogonal signal space.
Even if the signaling waveforms do not make up such
an orthogonal set, they can be transformed into
linear combinations of orthogonal waveforms.
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 Any arbitrary finite set of waveforms [ si(t) ]
(i=1,2,..M), where each member of the set is
physically realizable and of duration T, can be
expressed as a linear combination of N
orthogonal
N waveforms, where N<M, such that
si (t ) aij j (t ) i 1,..., M NM
j 1

where
1 T

K
a
ij s (t ) i j (t )dt i 1,..., M 0t T
0
j

j 1,..., N

Any arbitrary finite set of waveforms [ si(t) ]

can bes viewed
(a , a ,...,as
a a
) vector
i 1,..., M
i i1 i2 iN

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 The normalized energy Ei, associated with the waveform s i(t) over a
symbol interval T is:
2

a
T T
Ei si2 (t ) dt ij j (t ) dt
0 0
j
a (t ) aik k (t )dt
T
ij j
0
j k

aij aik j (t ) k (t )dt

t

0
j k

a a K
ij ik j jk
If orthonormal
j k
functions are used, the normalized energy over a
symbol duration
N T is given by
aij2 K j i 1,..., M
j 1
If there is equal energy E in each of the s i(t) waveforms, we can write
in the form
N
Ei a
j 1
2
ij

N
E aij2 for all i
j 1

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 Signal representations:
Noise within and beyond the signal space:

n(t ) within ~
n (t ) nthe
(t ) signal space
Noise

Noise
n (t ) n j j (t )
outside the signal space which can be effectively tuned out by
the detector.

n~ (t ) n(t ) n (t )
N
n(t ) n j j (t ) n~ (t )
Where j 1
and 1 T
nj
Kj
0
n(t ) j (t )dt for all j

n~ (t ) j (t )dt 0
T
0
for all j
n (n1 , n2 ,..., n N )

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 The noise variance (average noise power,
since the noise has zero mean)

N0

2
var[n(t )] df

2
The variance for filtered AWGN is finite.

If AWGN is correlated with one of a set of

orthonormal functions, the variance of the
correlator output is given by
T

2
N0
var(n j ) E n(t ) j (t )dt
2

0 2

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 Analog communications,
average signal power to
average noise power ratio,
SNR
In digital communications
Eb STb S Rb

N0 N W N W
One of the most important
metrics of performance in
DCS:
Eb S W

N0 N R
The smaller the required
Eb/No, the more efficient is
the detection process for a
given probability of error.

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 The decision-making criterion
z (T ) H1
H2
A popular criterion for choosing the threshold level for
the binary decision is based on minimizing the
probability of error.
The conditional density function p(z|si) is also called
the likelihood of si,

p ( z | s1 ) H1 H 2 P( s 2 )

p( z | s 2 ) P( s1 )
If p(z|s1)= p(z|s2) is symmetrical and if p(s1) = p(s2)
then

a1 a 2
z (T ) H1 H 2 0
2

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 The detector chooses s1(t) if
p ( z a | s1 ) p ( z a | s 2 )
The detector that minimizes the error probability is
known as a maximum likelihood detector.

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 An error e will occur when s1(t) is sent, and
channel noise results in the receiver output signal
z(t) being less than threshold. The probability of
such an occurrence is
0
P (e | s1 ) P ( H 2 | s1 ) p ( z | s1 )dz


P(e | s2 ) P ( H1 | s2 ) p ( z | s2 ) dz
0
For the binary case, we can express the probability
of bit error2 as 2
PB P (e, s
i 1
i ) P (e | s
i 1
i ) P(si )

PB P (e | s1 ) P( s1 ) P (e | s 2 ) P( s 2 )
PB P( H 2 | s1 ) P( s1 ) P( H 1 | s 2 ) P( s 2 )
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 For the case where p(s1) = p(s2)=1/2,
1 1
PB P ( H 2 | s1 ) P ( H 1 | s 2 )
2 2
Because of the symmetry of the pdf,

PB P ( H 2 | s1 ) P( H 1 | s 2 )
The probability of a bit error, PB, is numerically equal to
the area under the tail of either likelihood function
falling on the incorrect side of the threshold. That is,

PB 0 ( a1 a 2 ) / 2
p ( z | s 2 )dz

1
1 z a2
2

PB exp dz
0 ( a1 a2 ) / 2
0 2 2 0

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 Let u=(z-a2)/0 then 0du=dz and
u 1
u2 a1 a 2
PB
u ( a1 a 2 ) / 2 0
2
exp
2
du Q
2 0

Q(x) called the complementary error function or co-

error function, is a commonly used symbol for the
probability under the tail of the Gaussian pdf. It is
defined as 1 u2
Q( x)
2
x
exp
2
du

An approximation for
1 x>3 x2
Q( x) exp( )
x 2 2

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 A matched filter is a linear filter designed to
provide the maximum signal-to-noise power
ratio at its output for a given transmitted
symbol waveform.
Consider a signal s(t) plus AWGN n(t) is the
input to a LTI filter followed by a sampler at
time t = T the sampler output z(t) consists of
a signal component ai and a noise component
n0
The variance of output noise is denoted by 02
the ratio of instantaneous signal power to
average noise power (S/N)T at time t = T, out
of sampler in step 1 is
S a i2

N T 02
 Objective: To maximize (S/N)T
Expressing signal ai(t) at filter output in
terms of filter transfer function H(f)
(3.46)

j 2 f t
ai (t ) H ( f ) S( f ) e df

where S(f) is the Fourier transform of input
signal s(t)
Output noise power can be expressed as:
(3.47)
N0
Expressing 0 (S/N)
2
Tas:
| H ( f ) |2 df
2

2
(3.48) H ( f ) S( f ) e j 2fT
df
S

N N0
T
2

| H ( f ) |2 df
 For H(f) = H0(f) to maximize (S/N)T, ; use
Schwarzs Inequality:
2 2 2


f1 ( x) f 2 ( x )dx

f1 ( x ) dx
f 2 ( x ) dx

Equality holds if f1(x) = k f*2(x) where k is arbitrary

constant and * indicates complex conjugate
Associate H(f) with f1(x) and S(f) ej2 fT with f2(x) to
get:

2 2 2

Substitute df to yield:
j 2fT

H ( f ) S ( fin) eeq-3.48 H( f ) df S ( f ) df

S 2 2

N

T

N0

S ( f ) df
 S 2E
Or
maxwhere energy E of the input signal s(t):
N T N0
2
E S ( f ) df

Thus maximum output (S/N)T depends on input
signal energy and power spectral density of noise
and NOT on the particular shape of the waveform

Equality for max S holds 2E for optimum filter

transfer function H N 0 (f)
T N0
such that: (3.54)
(3.55) H ( f ) H 0 ( f ) kS *( f ) e j 2 f T
For real valued s(t):

1 j 2 f T
(3.56) h (t ) kS * ( f ) e

kS (T t ) 0 t T
h(t )
0 else where
 The impulse response of a filter producing
maximum output signal-to-noise ratio is the mirror
image of message signal s(t), delayed by symbol
time duration T.
The filter designed is called a MATCHED FILTER

kS (T t ) 0 t T
h(t )
0 else where

Defined as:
a linear filter designed to provide the maximum
signal-to-noise power ratio at its output for a given
transmitted symbol waveform
 A filter that is matched to the waveform s(t), has
an impulse response
kS (T t ) 0t T
h(t )
0 else where

h(t) is a delayed version of the mirror image

(rotated on the t = 0 axis) of the original signal
waveform

Signal Waveform Mirror image of signal Impulse response of

waveform matched filter
Figure 3.7
 This is a causal system
Recall that a system is causal if before an
excitation is applied at time t = T, the response
is zero for - < t < T
The signal waveform at the output of the matched
filter is
(3.57) t
z (t ) r (t ) * h(t ) r ( )h(t )d
Substituting h(t) to yield: 0

r ( ) sT (t ) d
t
z (t ) (3.58)
0

r ( ) sT t d
t
When t=T, 0
(3.59) T
z (t )
0
r ( ) s ( ) d
 CORRELATOR VERSUS MATCHED

FILTER
The functions of the correlator and matched
filter are the same