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Biological Bases of Behaviour.: Lecture 7: Techniques For Understanding Brain Structure & Function
Biological Bases of Behaviour.: Lecture 7: Techniques For Understanding Brain Structure & Function
Biological Bases of Behaviour.: Lecture 7: Techniques For Understanding Brain Structure & Function
Kalat (2000)
Learning Outcomes.
Carlson (1994) p
Membrane Stains
Carlson (1994) p
b) Tracing Connections.
Vasopressin-containing
axons and terminal
buttons
Carlson (1994) p
114
2. Imaging the Living Brain.
The methods previously described have all required
the brain to be removed.
The following techniques enable neural structure
and function to be viewed in the living brain.
Computerised Axial Tomography (CAT): Consists of a
circular arrangement of x-ray emitters and detectors
in which progressive scans through the brain can be
taken.
A 2-dimensional image of horizontal sections can
then be produced.
This technique is used mainly to diagnose
neurological conditions such as tumours, blood clots,
degenerative disease and the location of strokes.
CAT scan from a patient with a
lesion in the right occipital-parietal
area.
Carlson (1994) p
120
Positron Emission Tomography
(PET).
Advantages.
Non-invasive (CAT, MRI).
Provide very detailed knowledge about structure
(CAT, MRI) and function (PET, fMRI).
Disadvantages.
Mildly invasive (PET)
Only provide horizontal pictures (CAT)
3. Recording Electrical Activity
in the Brain.
Axons generate action potentials, and terminal
buttons elicit postsynaptic potentials.
These electrical events can be recorded, and changes
in electrical activity can be used to determine
whether a structure or region of the brain is involved
in a certain behaviour.
There are two types of measure:
a) Microelectrodes: Are very small and can record
electrical activity within single neurons (single-cell
recording).
These are normally implanted chronically into the
brain of an animal thus allowing the monitoring of
activity as the animal responds to particular
environmental stimuli.
Advantages/Disadvantages
of Microelectrodes.
Advantages.
Extremely precise.
Disadvantages.
Time consuming.
Too focused - it neglects neuronal interactions.
Invasive.
b) Macroelectrodes.
The Electroencephalogram (EEG) was invented by
Berger (1929).
Electrodes are attached to the scalp and the activity
of hundreds of thousands of neurons in the vicinity
of the electrodes recorded.
Active electrodes are placed over the site of
expected neural activity and an indifferent electrode
is placed at a neutral spot (usually the earlobe).
The recording simply measures the potential
difference between the two electrodes.
In clinical studies, many electrodes are used and
they are placed over the lobes of the brain according
to a conventional scheme.
The EEG Record.
Changes in electrical activity are evident in states such as
sleep, wakefulness, and arousal;abnormal electrical
activity can signal epilepsy or mental illness.
Each individuals EEG pattern is distinctive, but there are
characteristic patterns of electrical activity:
Alpha waves (8-13 Hz): Associated with relaxed
wakefulness
Beta waves (13-30 Hz): Seen in individuals who are awake,
alert, with eyes open, and who may be concentrating on
something.
Delta waves (0.5-4 Hz): Associated sleep in adults but are
also seen in infants, their abnormal appearance in awake
adults can be indicative of a brain tumour.
Theta waves (4-7 Hz): Also seen in adults sleeping and in
children. Their abnormal appearance in adults is typically
seen in psychopaths.
Advantages/Disadvantages
of Macroelectrodes.
Advantages.
Non-invasive
Can differentiate between different neurological
conditions or behavioural states.
Disadvantages.
Time consuming.
Very crude - the averaging of activity in many
neurons cannot establish precise activity in a
particular region.
4. Brain Stimulation.
In animals, direct electrical stimulation of the brain
can produce clear behavioural changes.
E.g stimulation of the hypothalamus may produce
feeding, drinking, sexual arousal, and aggression
suggesting an activational role.
Stimulation of the caudate nucleus often halts
ongoing behaviour which suggests an inhibitory
role.
In humans this technique was pioneered by Penfield
and Jasper (1954) in which they stimulated various
regions of cortex in conscious patients and noted
down the behavioural or sensory effects.
Electrical Stimulation of
the Human Brain
Carlson (1994) p
Advantages/Disadvantages
of Brain Stimulation.
Advantages.
Does not harm the brain.
A valid way of investigating living function of brain
areas.
Disadvantages.
Invasive.
Crude - not easy to tell how far the stimulation has
spread.
5. Experimental Brain
Damage.
An influential, though ethically controversial technique
is to cause localised brain damage in animals and note
the behavioural effects.
If an animal no longer performs a specific behaviour
following brain damage to a particular area (a lesion)
then that area must be responsible for the behaviour.
There are several methods:
Aspiration (ablation): the surface of the cortex is
removed.
Radiofrequency lesion: an electrode is inserted to the
correct location and then the tip is heated destroying
nearby cells.
Neurotoxic lesion: a neurotoxin such as ibotenic acid is
injected into a specific region, this destroys cell bodies
but leaves undamaged fibres of passage.
A Radiofrequency Lesion.
Advantages.
No ethical problems as the damage has occurred
naturally.
Disadvantages.
Lack of precision - extent of the damage is not
controllable.
There are problems with comparison - ie if a person
suffers brain damage and behaves aggressively how
do we know that this is not how they behaved
before?
References and
Bibliography.
Carlson, N.R. (1994). Physiology of Behaviour.
Kalat, J.W. (2000). Biological Psychology.
Penfield, W., & Jasper, H. (1954). Epilepsy and the
functional anatomy of the human brain. Boston:
Little, Brown & Co.
Raichle, M.E. (1994). Imaging the mind: studies with
modern imaging techniques. Annual Review of
Psychology, 45: 333 - 356.
Rosenzweig, M.R., Breedlove, S.M., & Leiman, A.L.
(2002). Biological Psychology.
Toates, F. (2001). Biological Psychology.