LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. To explain the factors affecting the

microbial distribution
2. To distinguish the microbes according to
the categories
- Greatly affected by chemical and physical
factors
- Understanding of environmental influences
control microbial growth
study of ecological distribution of
microorganisms
Growth limitation by environmental factors
- Growth according to the following Laws:

a) Liebigs Law of the Minimum

The total yield or biomass of any organism will
be determined by the nutrient or resource
present in the lowest (minimum) concentration
b) Shelfords Law of Tolerance
Survival and growth of each organism requires
a complex set of conditions which remains
within the tolerance range of that organism

Both laws
determine the presence and success
of organism in an ecosystem
 Whether or not an organism
can survive the environment at
ALL stages of life within a
particular habitat is vital
Population levels are controlled by:

1. Quantity and diversity of materials

minimum requirements
2. Critical abiotic factors
3. Tolerance limits of organisms
4. Biotic factors
 Physical factors affecting
distribution of microorganisms

A. Solutes and Water Activity

B. Temperature
C. Pressure
D. Radiation
Physical factors affecting distribution of m/os
A. Solutes and Water Activity
Affected by changes in osmotic concentration
Hypotonic solution (lower osmotic conc.):
- Water enter cell cell burst
- Strategy :
Mechanosensitive (MS) channels
Protozoa: contractile
vacuoles
Physical factors affecting distribution of m/os
A. Solutes and Water Activity

Hypertonic solution (higher osmotic conc.):

- Water leaves shrinks the cell
(plasmolysis)
- Strategy:
Having compatible solutes to increase
intracellular concentrations which can be used
for metabolism and growth.
E.g. increase uptake/synthesis of choline,
betaine, proline, and etc.
Physical factors affecting distribution of m/os
A. Solutes and Water Activity

- Amount of water available to m/os can be

reduced by
(a) interaction with solute molecules (osmotic
effect)
(b) adsorption to the surfaces of solids
Physical factors affecting distribution of m/os
A. Solutes and Water Activity

- Quantity of water availability = water

activity/water potential (aw)

- High osmotic pressure aw is low

- Pure water, aw = 1.0
Honey, aw = 0.6

- Difficulty for m/os to grow at low aw.

- Mostly grow at aw = 0.9 and above.
- Bacteria: 0.9 - 0.91
Physical factors affecting distribution of m/os
A. Solutes and Water Activity

- Osmotolerant: m/os growing over wide ranges of aw or

osmotic concentration e.g. fungi in aw = 0.6 0.95
osmophilic : aw= 0.6

- Xerophiles: aw= 0.65 mold (0.8), yeast (0.87-0.88)

- Halophiles: require high salt concentration for growth.
(1.5 -3M)
halophilic : aw = 0.75
 Halobacterium species produce gas vesicles
- float to the surface of the water column
light & E
Halococcus salifodinae - Austrian salt mine
(Denner et al., 1994)

Halophiles on Mars?

Aphanothece - well-adapted blue green alga

Physical factors affecting distribution of m/os

B. Temperature

- Affect enzyme catalyzed reactions

- Every rise of 10oC from low temperature double up
the enzyme velocity
- Damage beyond max. temp.
denaturing enzymes, transport carriers and other
proteins
melt the lipid bilayer and disintegrate membranes
- At low temp. membrane solidify and velocity of
enzyme is very low
Physical factors affecting distribution of m/os
B. Temperature

- Above optimum temp. function and cell

structure affected.
- Below optimum temp. function is affected
- Cardinal temperature minimum, optimum and
maximum.
- General scenario of max. temp.
Protozoa 50oC
Algae and fungi 55-60oC
Prokaryotes 100oC
Physical factors affecting distribution of m/os
B. Temperature

- Classification of m/os based on temperature

(i) Psychrophiles: Min: -10oC
Opt: -5-15oC
Max: 20oC
*Cell membrane high levels of
unsaturated fatty acids semifluid at low
temp.

Desulfofrigus oceanense
Physical factors affecting distribution of m/os
B. Temperature

(ii) Psychrotrophs/facultative psychrophiles:

Min: 0oC
Opt: 20-30oC
Max: 35oC
* Cause major spoilage of refrigerated foods*
Physical factors affecting distribution of m/os
B. Temperature

(iii) Mesophiles: Min : 15-20oC

Opt: 20-45oC
Max: 50oC or lower
Physical factors affecting distribution of m/os
B. Temperature

(iv) Thermophiles: Min: 45oC

Opt: 45-65oC
Max: 65-90oC

Yellowstone National Park

Thermus_aquaticus
Physical factors affecting distribution of m/os
B. Temperature

(v) Hyperthermophiles: Min: 80oC

Opt: 90-100oC
Max: 115oC

Pompeii worm (Alvinella pompejana)

 Pyrococcus furiosus

used as sources of the enzyme DNA

polymerase - polymerase chain reaction
(PCR) in DNA fingerprinting
Methanopyrus
Physical factors affecting distribution of m/os

C. Pressure
- Land or surface of water pressure 1 atm
- Deep sea 600 - 1,100 atm barotolerant
m/os
- Inhibit chemical reactions
- Barophilic m/os:
- dependant on high pressure
- Rapid growth at high pressure.
Important in nutrient recycling in deep
sea
Piezophilic

Halomonas salaria

Gram negative halophilic cannot grow at less

than 50 MPa pressure, and grow optimally at
102 MPa
Barotolerant -
found in the ocean up to depths of 4 km, nearly 400
atm but grow better at 1 atm

Barophilic
in the ocean at depths consistant with pressures
> 400 atm and grow better under high pressure

Extreme Barophiles
organisms that obligately grow at pressures > 700
atm & do not grow at low pressures
Physical factors affecting distribution of m/os
D. Radiation

- Major source of radiation: sunlight

- Visible light, UV radiation, infrared rays and
radio waves
- Visible light (400 nm 740 nm) source of
energy for phototrophs
- Most important criteria: intensity of light
wavelength
duration
Physical factors affecting distribution of m/os
D. Radiation

- Infrared (740 5000 nm) is the major source

of Earths heat
- UV radiation most damaging to living
organisms

Rubrobacter xylanophilus
Deinococcus radiodurans
CONAN the BACTERIUM
Physical factors affecting distribution of m/os
D. Radiation

- UV radiation: short wavelength (200 - 380 nm) and high

energy (mostly absorbed by ozone layer, reaching earth
in the range of 280 310 nm)
- UV radiation damage: formation of thymine dimers
- Slight damage of UV is reversible through
photoreactivation
- Other damaging radiation:
ionizing radiation e.g. X rays
gamma rays
* Cause mutation and may cause death *
 Chemical factors affecting
distribution of microorganisms
A. pH
B. Oxygen Concentration
C. Water
D. Carbon
E. Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Sulfur
F. Special Growth Factor
G. Trace Elements
Chemical factors affecting distribution of m/os
A. pH
- Measure of hydrogen ion activity of a solution
- pH 0.0 (1.0 M H+)
pH 14 (1 x 10-14 M H+).
- Types of m/os based on pH tolerance:
i. Acidophiles: growth optima pH 0 to 5.5
ii. Neutrophiles : growth optima pH 5.5 and 8.0
iii. Alkalophiles: growth optima pH 8.5 to 11.5

iv. Extreme alkalophiles: growth optima above

pH 10
Chemical factors affecting distribution of m/os
A. pH

- Bacteria: (pH 6.5-7.5)

Fungi: slight acidity and wider range (pH 2 to 9)
- Expose to unsuitable pH:
Affect internal pH disrupt plasma
membrane, inhibit enzyme activity and
membrane transport proteins
External pH alter ionization of nutrient
molecules
Chemical factors affecting distribution of m/os
A. pH

- Strategy:
small variation: exchange potassium/sodium
for protons by using antiport transport system
higher variation: synthesize new proteins e.g.
proton-translocating ATPase
highest variation : synthesize chaperones e.g.
acid shock proteins increase the pH as they
grow
Chemical factors affecting distribution of m/os
B. Oxygen concentration
- Classification of m/os based on temperature
(i) Aerobes: growth with O2
Anaerobes: growth without O2
(ii) Facultative anaerobes: do not require O2
for growth but grow better in its presence
(iii) Aerotolerant anaerobes: grow equally well
in presence or absence of O2
(iv) Strict/Obligate anaerobes: do not tolerate
O2 at all
Chemical factors affecting distribution of m/os
B. Oxygen concentration

(v) Microaerophiles:
damage by normal atm. level of O2 (20%)
and require O2 levels 2-10% for growth

Helicobacter pylori
Chemical factors affecting distribution of m/os
B. Oxygen concentration

- To those sensitive to O2, O2 will

(i)inactivate proteins e.g. nitrogen-fixation enzyme
(ii)affected by toxic O2 derivatives
Chemical factors affecting distribution of m/os
B. Oxygen concentration

- Toxic O2 derivatives
O2 accepts e- and produced reduced products

O2 + e- O2 -.. (superoxide radical)

.
O2 - + e- + 2H+ H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide)
.
H2O2 + e- + H+ H20 + OH (hydroxyl radical)
Chemical factors affecting distribution of m/os
B. Oxygen concentration

- Aerobes and facultative anaerobes: with superoxide

dismutase (SOD), catalase and peroxidase to detoxify
these products

2O2 - + 2H+ SOD O2 + H2O2

catalase
2H2O2 2H2O + O2
peroxidase
H2O2 + NADH + H +
2H2O + NAD+
Chemical factors affecting distribution of m/os
B. Oxygen concentration

- Aerotolerant m/os: lack catalase but have

superoxide dismutase and peroxidase
- Strict anaerobes: do not have all three

Capnophiles : Mannheimia succiniciproducens

Chemical factors affecting distribution of m/os

C. Water

- 75 - 90% of cells
- Function of water:
(a) As solvent
(b) for cellular function, metabolism
Chemical factors affecting distribution of m/os

D. Carbon
- Importance:
(a) Chemical building block for cells
(b) Source of energy
- Differentiate m/os into their nutritional groups
Chemical factors affecting distribution of m/os

E. Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Sulfur

- Function and source mentioned in Topic 3
(Nutrition and metabolism)
Chemical factors affecting distribution of m/os

F. Special Growth Factors

- Specific nutrient e.g. amino acid or vitamin in
low concentration
- Absence: cannot grow
- E.g. Legionella pneumophila require L-cystein
and iron grows with algae and amoebas
Chemical factors affecting distribution of m/os

G. Trace elements

- e.g.: Fe, Mg, Mn, Cu, Zn and etc.

- For function of enzyme or metabolism
- Not necessary to specifically provide.