Monitoring the Ground

Instrumentation in Engineering
Geology
EARS5011 Engineering Geology and Site
Investigation
EARS5191 Ground Investigation Methods

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Monitoring the Ground M.Sc. Exploration
 Purposes of instrumentation
Ground Investigation and
construction result in:
changes in pore water pressure
changes in total stress
changes in effective stress
changes in loading states (i.e.
horizontal changes in stresses
leading to unloading)
changes in material properties.
M.Sc. Engineering Geology
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 Aims of instrumentation

To monitor changes in ground

conditions that may be moving
towards a state of failure
to test designs to identify whether
the proposed plans are workable
to identify whether proposed designs
are economic, and whether they can
be made more cost effective

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Monitoring the Ground M.Sc. Exploration
 Advantages

Yield data specific to the site under

investigation
Can be deployed and monitored long
term i.e. before, during and after
implementation of a project
data can be recorded digitally and
telemetered to a central data store for
processing

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Monitoring the Ground M.Sc. Exploration
 Potential problems
Possible failure of power supply
damage to storage media and loss of
data
failure of data connection link
(telemetry)
Vandalism
Destruction of instrument during
displacement (a real problem for
landslide monitoring).
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 Requirements of instruments
The instrument deployed should be
capable of measuring the required
parameter
the instrument should be sufficiently
precise and accurate
instruments should be employed to ensure
some data redundancy in case of failure
Instruments should be capable of surviving
in a hostile environment

M.Sc. Engineering Geology

Monitoring the Ground M.Sc. Exploration
 Instrumentation - what kinds
Piezometers
Extensometers
Inclinometers
Crack meters
GPS
Survey methods
Aerial Photography and Remote
Sensing
Interferometry
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 M.Sc. Engineering Geology
Monitoring the Ground M.Sc. Exploration
 Groundwater and Pore Water
Pressure measurements

Piezometers

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 Types of Piezometers

Standpipe Piezometers
Pneumatic Piezometers
Borehole Sealing Pellets
Micromatic Pneumatic Piezometers
Hydraulic Piezometers
Vibrating Wire Piezometers
Water Level Meters (Dipmeters)

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 Standpipe Piezometers - purposes

Construction control and stability

monitoring of embankments, dams and reservoirs.
Stability investigations of natural and cut slopes.
Control of de-watering and drainage operations.
Hydrological investigations and water supply
Pollution and environmental studies.
Construction control of shallow
underground works.
Permeability measurements.
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 Standpipe Piezometers - how they
work

Porous tube installed in a borehole (may

also be driven or pushed into soft soil
(<20kPa)
Groundwater can enter the tube only via the
tip
Water pressure is usually measured with a
dipmeter water level probe and
corresponds to the height of the water

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 Coarse, clean sand
filter material is
placed through water
to the proposed base
of the piezometer tip
and is compacted.
A plug to prevent
entry of grout into
the sand filter is
usually placed in the
form of balls of stiff
bentonite
The standpipe is
secured in grout

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Monitoring the Ground M.Sc. Exploration
 Advantages
borehole readings can be made to depths in
excess of 200 m;
Precision of dipmeter readings is approximately
1:2 cm head
The dipmeter can be used in standpipe up to
25o from vertical.
All components have excellent resistance to
corrosion, and to mechanical damage.
Ideal piezometer to ascertain the piezomteric level
during routine site investigation.
Simpler than other alternatives and often more
reliable.
M.Sc. Engineering Geology
Monitoring the Ground M.Sc. Exploration
 Disadvantages
Response water variations is comparatively slow;
generally used for long term observations or for short
term readings in high permeability ground (greater
than approximately 10-6 ms-1).
Dipmeter readings are feasible only in near-vertical
downward installations; (otherwise use a Bourdon
gauge).
Standpipes may be undesirable in construction areas
due to their vulnerability to damage from construction
traffic.
Semi-rigid standpipe tubing may kink or break in
zones of extreme ground movement
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Monitoring the Ground M.Sc. Exploration
 Different types of
piezometer tips:
Casagrande and
Cambridge Tips
(far left, and left of
dipmeter
respectively) and
Driven Casagrande
(right of dipmeter)
and Cambridge
tips (extreme right)
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 Note: that most piezometers
allow for the calculation of pore
water pressures

For precise measurement

pressure cells and pore water
pressure probes can be
deployed

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 Inclinometers

Detecting the detail of

subsurface movement

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 Inclinometers - why use them ?
The Measurement of lateral displacement of soil, rock
and manmade structures, including:
Shear-plane determination and direction of movement
in natural and cut slopes.
Monitoring lateral displacements of embankments and
dams.
Deflections of concrete or membranes on dams.
Deflection of bridge piers, piled foundations,
abutments, retaining and diaphragm walls.
Stability of shafts, tunnels and underground works.
Vertical movement caused by subsidence, heave or
settlement
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 Inclinometers - advantages
The inclinometer system is simple to install,
reliable, and provides accurate
measurements.
The system provides readings of lateral
deviation in two orthogonal planes over the
complete length of the access tube.
Plastic access tubing is flexible, thick walled,
corrosion resistant, twist free and self aligning.
Access tubing may be installed with lengths up
to 200m and with in 30 from the vertical.

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 Inclinometers - advantages

The probe, cable drum and read out unit are

readily portable.
Cables are normally molded to probe for
long term reliability and integrity.
Full data logging capability.
Rapid inclinometer readings along with
efficient data storage and retrieval are made
possible when the inclinometer logger is
used.
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Monitoring the Ground M.Sc. Exploration
 M.Sc. Engineering Geology
Monitoring the Ground M.Sc. Exploration
 M.Sc. Engineering Geology
Monitoring the Ground M.Sc. Exploration
 Inclinometers
An inclinometer system comprises a torpedo
shaped probe, fitted with guide wheels and
containing a tilt sensor
The tilt sensor enables the horizontal deviation
between the probe axis and the vertical plane
to be recorded.
Measurement of tilt and probe depth are used
to compute the horizontal deviation
The access tubing is grouted into a borehole,
embedded in fill or concrete
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 Inclinometers
where compression/extension of the
access tubing is expected. Displacement
readings are taken at regular depth
intervals of 0.5m or 1.0m within the access
tubing, measured
An initial set of inclinometer readings
(base readings) is obtained at specified
depths within the access tube and at
subsequent intervals of time
Movement vectors can be calculated from
bi-directional inclinometers
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 Extensometers

M.Sc. Engineering Geology

Monitoring the Ground M.Sc. Exploration
 Applications of extensometers
Relaxation of rock around tunnels and other
underground openings
Foundation settlements
Monitoring of subsidence
Control of natural and cut slopes, quarry
and mining excavations
Displacements of retaining walls, bridge
piers and abutments.
Monitoring of in situ tests.
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 How do extensometers work
The single rod extensometer is a rod anchored at one end of
a borehole, passing into a reference tube fixed in a borehole.
Relative movement between the end anchor and the
reference tube is measured with either a dial depth gauge or
a vibrating wire displacement transducer.
Multiple rod installations monitor displacements at various
depths using rods of varying length.
Several single rod units may be installed in close proximity in
boreholes of small diameter or several rods may be installed
side by side in a single large hole.
Rod extensometer units can, when required, be surface
mounted, for example to measure displacements across
tension cracks or joints, and can be buried in fill or cast in
concrete.
M.Sc. Engineering Geology
Monitoring the Ground M.Sc. Exploration
 Types of Extensometers
Single and Multiple Rod
Extensometers
Magnetic Extensometer
Tape Extensometer
Potentiometric Soil Extensometer
Crackmeter
Vibrating Wire Soil Extensometer
Vibrating Wire Strain Gauges
Vibrating Wire Jointmeters
Vibrating Wire Perimetric Jointmeter
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 Extensometers
can be deployed
downhole to
measure
settlement by
anchoring below
the compacting
surface
Extensometers
should be deployed
greater than 500m
beyond the zone of
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 M.Sc. Engineering Geology
Monitoring the Ground M.Sc. Exploration
 Extensometer- advantages
Reliable, accurate, simple to install and
read.
Free from creep, kinking and other
inaccuracies associated with tensioned
wire systems.
Single rod instruments are ideal for safety
monitoring during construction activities.
Often used for monitoring and control of
construction by the New Austrian
Tunnelling Method (NATM).
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 Extensometers

Can be connected to Vibrating Wire

displacement transducers for data
logging.
Remote readout equipment can be
used in conjunction other instruments
Good borehole stability and quality of
grouting essential for successful
installations.

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 The tape extensometer is used to determine
changes in the distance
between pairs of reference points. Examples
include:
Monitoring convergence of tunnel walls.
Monitoring deformations in underground
openings.
Monitoring displacement of retaining walls,
bridge supports, and other concrete
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structures.
 Lam Ta Khong tunnel, Thailand

Mainly Jurassic sedimentary rocks -

sandstones and siltstones
Overlain by Quaternary mudstones and clays
Beds dip sub-horizontally to the NE (c. 10o)
cavern built by drill and blast methods
overbreaking occurred due to blasting and
high horizontal stresses.
Purpose of monitoring convergence was the
design / redesign of support
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 Instruments
Instrument deployed
deployed every 30 m
Tape extensometers
recorded until
multi-rod borehole
convergence was
extensometers
less than 1 mm/day
disc load cells

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 M.Sc. Engineering Geology
Monitoring the Ground M.Sc. Exploration
 An example of
inclinometer and
extensometer
use
The Zentoku
landslide in Japan
occurs in weathered
crystalline rocks
The landslide has
been monitored using
by extensometers, bi-
directional
inclinometers and
borehole piezometers.
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 M.Sc. Engineering Geology
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 The Zentoku Landslide, Japan
A translational slump with slip surfaces at
depths of 1520 and 3060 m.

The shear zones are dominantly clay rich

The dip of the bedding is nearly parallel to the

slope

the crushed zones and the concave shape of the

bedrock have been detected by seismic
exploration.

The mean slope is ca 28 the length of the

landslide is approximately 1300 m; and
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 14 Permanent markers
(red)
16 Borehole inclinometers
(green)

Monitoring the Ground Arrows are movement

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Crackmeters
designed for
monitoring cracks in
concrete - manual
crackmeters can be
seen in this building
also used to monitor
extension over joints
and other
discontinuities
are routinely
datalogged to provide
continuous
Monitoring data
the Ground M.Sc. Engineering Geology
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 Extending rod, or vibrating wireline crackmeters are
available
Monitoring joints for unexpected movement to
provide early warning of performance problems.
Monitor joints and cracks in structures that may be
affected by nearby excavation and construction
activities.
Monitor cracks in structures that experienced seismic
activity. M.Sc. Engineering Geology
Monitoring the Ground
High Resolution: The crackmeters should beExploration
M.Sc. able to
 M.Sc. Engineering Geology
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 Global Positioning Systems
(and other Survey Methods)
Advantages of GPS
does not require line of sight on monitored
stations
permanent reference stations can be installed
to improve precision
permanent receivers can be installed to get
real time measurements of displacement
In differential mode, GPS measurements can
be in the order of 5-10mm (spatially) and 10-
30 mm vertically
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 Global Positioning Systems
(and other Survey Methods)
Disadvantages of GPS
Requires clear view of the sky
Expensive to install
requires to be data processed, some of
which can be complicated
In kinetic mode, GPS can be imprecise, so it
is unsuitable for large displacements
Selective Availability can be switched on
and off depending on US Military
requirements - Gallileo may solve this.
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 Advantages of ground based InSAR
A remote sensing method without the need for
benchmarks to be installed over the target area.
Measurements are not influenced by diurnal
temperature changes (as EDM is) and cloud
cover (as other remote sensing methods are).
The method can provide movement data over a
large spatial area covering large sectors of the
landslide.
Cost to deploy and time of installation are
comparable to automatic topographic
measuring systems based on EDM/GPS.

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 M.Sc. Engineering Geology
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 M.Sc. Engineering Geology
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Radar power image of the head of the Tessina landslide projected on
a digital elevation model of the slope.
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 M.Sc. Engineering Geology
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 M.Sc. Engineering Geology
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Cumulative displacements measured by the EDM at
benchmark 610 compared with radar displacements in
the corresponding pixel (from the 12:02 h of 04/10/2000
and the 12:02 h of 06/10/2000. M.Sc. Engineering Geology
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 Summary
Instruments must suit the problem at hand

Piezometer choice and location must be

controlled by hydrogeology and site conditions

instrument results can be affected by

external influences e.g. construction traffic
on site leading to apparent movements in
extensometers or inclinometers

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 Summary
There is a cost-benefit trade off for
instrumentation - some instruments are more
expensive to deploy than others (e.g. bi-
directional inclinometers vs tape extensometers)

Instruments should be deployed in such a manner

to minimize potential damage from site traffic

Exercise caution in interpreting results - apparent

movements in the Leaning Tower of Piza were the
result of differential heating and cooling of the
clay substrate.

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 Summary
In situ instruments have advantages in terms of making
direct observations of the target
Frequent visits to collect / download data mean that on
site conditions can be reported e.g. does surface
morphology fit with recorded movements in borehole
instruments
Telemetered data are useful where site access is difficult
remote observation such as GPS or survey methods give
useful surface measurements, but do not give
information about sub-surface motions
The choice of instrument should be made before
boreholes are opened as this may govern technique and
type of flush

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 Reading
Clayton, C. R. I., Matthews, M. C. & Simons, N. E. 1995. Site Investigation (Chapter 10). Blackwell
Press. 2nd Ed.
Fruneau, B., Achache, J. & Delacourt, C. 1996. Observation and modelling of the Saint
Etienne de Tinee landslide using SAR Interferometry. Tectonophysics. 265 181-190.
Furuya, G., Sassa, K., Hiura, H. & Fukuoka, H. 1999. Mechanism of creep movement caused by
landslide activity and underground erosion in crystalline schist, Shikoku Island, southwestern
Japan Engineering Geology, 53, 311325
Gurung, N. & Iwao, Y. 1998 Observations of deformation and engineering geology in the Lam Ta
Khong tunnel, Thailand. Engineering Geology, 51, 5563
Tarchi, D., Casagli, N., Fanti, F., Leva, D. D., Luzi, G., Pasuto, P., Pieraccini, M. & Silvano,
S. 2002. Landslide monitoring by using ground-based SAR interferometry: an example
of application to the Tessina landslide in Italy. Engineering Geology. In Press.

External lecturer 2nd , 3rd December 2004

Before these dates you should read:
Clayton, C. R. I., Matthews, M. C. & Simons, N. E.
1995. Site Investigation (Chapter 9 - in situ Testing).
Blackwell Press. 2nd Ed.
M.Sc. Engineering Geology
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