Chapter 26

(Sections 26.5-26.8)

Reproduction and Development

BIOLOGY: Today and Tomorrow, 4e

starr evers starr
26.5 Factors Affecting Fertility

Contraception is used to prevent pregnancy

Abstinence

Preventing ovulation
Birth control pill

Preventing fertilization
Surgical methods (vasectomy, tubal ligation)
Physical or chemical barriers (condom, spermicide)

Preventing implantation
IUD
Common Methods of Contraception
Abortion

An induced abortion is the deliberate dislodging and removal

of an embryo or a fetus from the uterus.

Mifepristone (RU-486) and a prostaglandin are used to

terminate pregnancy during the first nine weeks of pregnancy
Infertility

About 10% of couples in the US are infertile

Causes of female infertility include age, obesity, hormonal

disorders, endometriosis, uterine problems, and STDs

Male infertility can be due to few or abnormal sperm,

ejaculation problems, hormonal disorders, and STDs
Tubal Pregnancy
Sexually Transmitted Disease

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)

Infectious diseases caused by protozoan, bacterial, and
viral pathogens that can live in the reproductive tract and
are spread by unsafe sex
Viral STDs are incurable
Bacterial and protozoal STDs can be cured
If untreated, STDs can cause sterility and harm health of
parents and their offspring
Common STDs

Viruses
HPV causes genital warts and cervical cancer
Genital herpes causes sores and birth defects
HIV leads to AIDS and opportunistic infections

Protozoans
Trichomoniasis can cause infertility

Bacteria
Chlamydia infection can cause infertility
Gonorrhea can cause sterility
Syphilis damages internal organs, brain and spinal cord
New STD Cases Annually
Chlamydia transmitted during birth

A) Chlamydia inflamed eyes of an infant who was infected by its mother during delivery.
Syphilis infection

B) Chancres caused by a
syphilis infection that has
spread throughout the body.
Genital warts

C) Genital warts (raised white

areas) on the labia of a woman
infected by HPV.
26.6 Human Prenatal Development

Prenatal development occurs from fertilization to birth, about

38 weeks in humans

After fertilization in the oviduct, a zygote moves toward the

uterus

Cleavage begins in 1-2 days; four divisions produce 16-cells

Cleavage and Implantation

A blastocyst forms by the fifth day; implantation begins around

the sixth day when the blastocyst attaches and burrows into
the endometrium

Blastocyst
Mammalian blastula
Consists of an outer cell layer that will form membranes, a
fluid-filled blastocoel, and an inner cell mass that will
become the embryo
Cleavage and Implantation

Four membranes form around the blastocyst amnion, yolk

sac, allantois, and chorion

Amnion
Extraembryonic membrane that encloses an amniote
embryo and the amniotic fluid

Yolk sac
Extraembryonic membrane that gives rise to embryonic
blood cells, germ cells in the gonads
Cleavage and Implantation

Allantois
Forms the bladder and combines with maternal tissue to
form a placenta

Placenta
Organ composed of maternal and embryonic tissues that
allows the exchange oxygen and nutrients between
mother and embryo
Cleavage and Implantation

Chorion
Outermost extraembryonic membrane of amniotes
Chorionic villi form part of the placenta
Major component of the placenta in placental mammals
Secretes HCG

Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)

Maintains the uterus to sustain a pregnancy
Detected in home pregnancy tests
fertilization From Fertilization To Implantation
cleavage
begins blastocyst
forms

blastocyst
implants
From Fertilization
To Implantation

1 Days 15 Repeated cell

divisions divide the zygote
cytoplasm among an
increasing number of cells.
From Fertilization To inner cell mass
Implantation

2 Days 57 A blastocyst (the mammalian

version of a blastula) forms, expands, and
sheds its protein coat. Cells of the inner cell
mass are destined to become the embryo
proper.
 endometrial cavity inside
From Fertilization To epithelium the uterus
Implantation
surface layer
cells of the
blastocyst

3 Days 89
Implantation begins.
The blastocyst
attaches to the
lining of the uterus
and begins
to burrow into it.

blastocoel
inner cell mass
From Fertilization
To Implantation start of start of
amniotic embryonic
cavity disk

4 Days 1011
The inner cell
mass becomes a
two-layered
embryonic disk.
Cell migrations
begin to form
start of
extra-embryonic
membranes. yolk sac

actual
size
From Fertilization
To Implantation chorion chorionic
chorionic cavity
villi

amniotic
cavity

connective
tissue
Day 14 Blood-filled
5
spaces form in the
endometrium.
Projections from the yolk sac
chorion, called
chorionic villi, grow into
the spaces. The
amniotic cavity is now actual
filled with fluid. size
Embryonic Development

Week 2: gastrulation occurs, a three-layered embryo begins

to form

Week 4: neural tube and notochord have formed, somites

become visible, pharyngeal arches appear

Weeks 5-6: organs begin to fill in, limbs form

Organ formation begins

paired neural folds

Day 16 Gastrulation
has occurred and the
neural tube is forming
by the merging of two
neural folds.
Organ formation begins
future brain

Days 1823 Bumps of

mesoderm (somites) form.
They will develop into
muscle and bone of the
head and trunk.

somites
Organ formation begins
pharyngeal
arches

Days 2425 Pharyngeal

arches appear. They will
become structures in the
head and neck.
Fetal Development

Weeks 8-9: organ systems have formed, the embryo

becomes a fetus

Fetus
Developing human between 9 weeks and birth
Heartbeat is detected at about 5 months
After 7 months it can survive if born prematurely
Full term is 38 weeks (9 months)
Embryonic and Fetal Development

WEEK 4
Embryonic and Fetal
Development
yolk sac
connecting stalk
embryo

forebrain
future lens

pharyngeal arches

developing heart
upper limb bud
somites
neural tube forming

lower limb bud

tail
actual length
Embryonic and Fetal Development

WEEKS 56
Embryonic and Fetal
Development

head growth exceeds

growth of other regions
retinal pigment

future external ear

upper limb differentiation

(hand plates develop, then
digital rays of future
fingers; wrist, elbow start
forming)

umbilical cord formation between

weeks 4 and 8 (amnion expands, forms
tube that encloses the connecting stalk
and a duct for blood vessels)
foot plate

actual length
Embryonic and Fetal Development

WEEK 8
Embryonic and Fetal Development

final week of embryonic

period; embryo looks
distinctly human compared
to other vertebrate
embryos

upper and lower limbs well

formed; fingers and then
toes have separated

primordial tissues of all

internal, external
structures now developed

tail has become stubby

actual length
Embryonic and Fetal Development

placenta

WEEK 16
Embryonic and Fetal Development
Length: 16 centimeters
(6.4 inches)
Weight: 200 grams
(7 ounces)

WEEK 29
Length: 27.5 centimeters
(11 inches)
Weight: 1,300 grams
(46 ounces)
WEEK 38 (full term)
Length: 50 centimeters
(20 inches)
Weight: 3,400 grams
(7.5 pounds)

During fetal period, length

measurement extends
from crown to heel (for
embryos, it is the longest
measurable dimension, as
from crown to rump).
Functions of the Placenta

Oxygen and nutrients diffuse from mother to embryo; wastes

diffuse from embryo to mother
Embryonic blood vessels extend through the umbilical
cord to the placenta, into chorionic villi surrounded by
pools of maternal blood
Maternal and embryonic bloodstreams never mix

Placenta produces HCG, progesterone, and estrogens that

maintain the uterine lining
Placenta: Maternal and fetal tissue

umbilical
cord

placenta
Placenta: Maternal and fetal tissue
amniotic
fluid

umbilical fetal blood

cord vessels inside
pool of umbilical cord
maternal
blood

chorionic villus,
with fetal blood
vessels inside it
placenta

maternal blood
in uterine lining
Maternal Effects
on Prenatal Development

Adequate maternal nutrition is essential to prevent birth

defects and complications
Example: folate for nervous system development

Some pathogens can cross the placenta; especially

dangerous during organ formation
Examples: German measles, toxoplasmosis
Maternal Effects on Prenatal Development

An embryo is exposed to toxins from the mothers body

Alcohol causes fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
Caffeine increases risks of miscarriage, nervous system
damage
Smoking increases risks of miscarriage, affects fetal
growth and development
Some medications cause severe birth defects
Addictive drugs also cross the placenta
Child with fetal alcohol syndrome
INTERACTION: Sensitivity to teratogens

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ANIMATION: Amniocentesis

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ANIMATED FIGURE: Cleavage and
implantation

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ANIMATED FIGURE: Structure of the
placenta

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VIDEO: Medical Miracles: DHEA Added to In Vitro
VIDEO: Vaccinating Against Cancer
26.7 From Birth Onward

Hormones prepare a womans body for pregnancy, labor, and

nursing

The cervix stretches to allow passage of the fetus

During labor, the hormone oxytocin stimulates uterine

contractions that expel fetus and placenta
Labor and Childbirth
placenta

wall of uterus

umbilical cord

dilating cervix

A) Fetus positioned for childbirth; its head is

against the mothers cervix, which is dilating.
Labor and Childbirth

B) Muscle contractions stimulated by oxytocin

force the fetus out through the vagina.
Labor and Childbirth
placenta detaching
from wall of uterus

umbilical cord

C) The placenta detaches from the wall of the uterus and is expelled.
Nourishing the Newborn

Lactation
Milk secreted by mammary glands supplies nutrients and
antibodies that help a newborn resist infection
Estrogens and progesterone help develop the glandular
system for milk production
Prolactin stimulates production of milk proteins
Oxytocin stimulates contractions in milk ducts
Drugs and pathogens also pass to child in milk
Breast changes with lactation

nipple

adipose
A) Nonpregnant tissue
Breast changes with lactation
active
mammary
gland

B) Lactating milk duct

Postnatal Development

Development and growth continue after birth

Postnatal growth is most rapid between years 13 and 19,

when sex hormones increase and secondary sexual traits
appear

Bones do not fully mature until adulthood

VIDEO: Male Fertility
26.8 Assisted Reproduction (revisited)

Because embryos conceived by IVF frequently fail to develop,

doctors often place several in a womans womb to increase
the odds that one will survive

If all embryos do develop, the woman faces the risks

associated with a multiple pregnancy

IVF procedures produce more embryos than parents use in

the US, about half a million embryos remain frozen
Nadya Suleman with 8 IVF infants
Digging Into Data:
Multiple Births and Birth Defects