P2 REVISION

Key knowledge
How do you calculate speed and what is the unit?
Distance (m) time (s) = speed (m/s)
How do you work out the speed at a certain point or the
average speed for the journey from a distance/time
graph?
Find the gradient at a certain point. The steeper the
gradient the faster the speed.
Divide the total distance travelled by the time the vehicle
was moving for (watch out for parts of the graph where it
is not moving and ignore those times).
What is velocity?
Speed in a certain direction.
What is acceleration and what is the unit?
The change in velocity per second. Unit is m/s2.
Acceleration (positive) is speeding up and deceleration
(negative) is slowing down
How do we use a velocity/time graph to calculate
acceleration?
Gradient = acceleration
(H) How do you calculate the distance travelled?
Find the area under the graph.
In a velocity/time graph, what does a horizontal line mean?
Constant velocity
What does a straight sloping line show?
Acceleration or deceleration
How do you show faster acceleration?
A steeper slope.

(H) What does a curved line mean?

The acceleration is changing.

How do you find the area of a triangle?

Half the base x height.
What is a vector quantity?
One that has size and direction.
e.g. displacement velocity force acceleration
What can a force do?
Change the shape of an object, make it start or stop
moving or change its velocity.

When two objects push or pull on each other, what can we

say about the forces?
They are equal in size and opposite in direction.

What is a resultant force?

A single force that you work out by cancelling
out all the opposite forces on an object.

What produces the driving or motive force on a car?

The friction between the ground and the tyre of each
wheel. The friction of the tyre on the road is backwards so
the force of friction of the road on the tyre is forwards.
Remember on an icy road you cant move forwards.
If the resultant force on an object is zero, what happens
to it?
It stays at rest or moves at constant speed.

What happens if the resultant force is not zero?

The velocity changes.

What happens if two forces are acting in the same

direction?
You add them together.

What if they are acting in opposite directions?

You take one away from the other to find the size and
direction of the resultant force.
What is the unit of force?
The Newton.
If the force on an object increases, what happens to the
acceleration?
The acceleration is greater as force = mass x acceleration
What happens to an object if the force acting on it is in
the opposite direction to its velocity?
It decelerates (slows down)
When a car is travelling at a constant velocity, which
forces are balanced?
The driving force is balanced by friction and air
resistance.
What happens to the braking force needed to stop a car if
it is heavier and going faster?
It increases.

What two parts make up the stopping distance of a car?

Thinking distance + braking distance.
What factors increase the thinking distance (how far the
car travels before you put the brakes on)?
Tiredness, alcohol, drugs, speed.

What factors increase the braking distance (how far you

travel after you apply the brakes)?
Speed, road conditions, worn brakes or tyres.

What is weight?
The force of gravity on an object.

How do you calculate weight?

weight = mass x gravitational field strength

What is mass?
The amount of matter in an object.
Why does an object fall?
Its weight, caused by gravity, accelerates it downwards.
How fast does it accelerate?
At about 10m/s2 on Earth.
What happens to the drag force as the speed increases?
It increases.
What is terminal velocity?
The maximum velocity it reaches when falling through a gas
or liquid when weight = drag so the resultant force is zero.
What is the extension of a spring?
The difference between the original length and the
stretched length.

How is extension related to the force applied?

The extension is directly proportional to the force applied.
Hookes Law states
Force applied (N) = spring constant (N/m) x extension (m)
How can fuel economy be improved?
Reducing speed.
Fitting wind deflectors.

How do average speed cameras work?

They are fitted in pairs and calculate average speed from
distance travelled and time taken.

How do anti-skid surfaces help?

They increase the friction between the tyres and the road
so the car is less likely to skid.

What other methods are used to improve road safety?

Speed limits.
Speed cameras.
What happens to braking distance if your speed doubles?
It quadruples.
What is work?
The amount of energy transferred.

What is power?
How quickly energy is transferred .

How is the work done by a force calculated?

Work done (J) = force applied (N) x distance moved (m).

What happens to the energy transferred when surfaces

rub together?
It is transferred into energy that heats the surrounding.

What energy transfer occurs in the brakes of a car?

Kinetic energy is transferred into energy that heats the
brake pads.
When you lift an object, what energy transfer occurs?
Chemical energy from your muscles is transferred into
gravitational potential energy of the object.

How is the change of GPE calculated?

Change in GPE (J) = weight (N) x change in height (m)

How is weight calculated?

weight (N) = mass (kg) x gravitational field strength (N/kg).

When you put these two equations together what do you

get?
Ep = m x g x h.

How is power calculated?

P (Watts) = Energy transferred (J)/time taken (s).
What two factors does kinetic energy depend on?
The mass of an object and its speed.

What is the formula for calculating kinetic energy Ek?

kinetic energy = x mass x speed2

How do kinetic energy recovery systems in cars work?

Kinetic energy in braking is transferred to a flywheel and
used later.
How do hybrids work?
An electric generator transfers kinetic energy into
electrical energy and stores it in a battery.
What is elastic potential energy?
The energy stored in an elastic object when work is done
to change its shape.
What energy transfer happens when an arrow is released?
Elastic potential energy into kinetic energy.
How is momentum calculated?
Momentum (kg m/s) = mass (kg) x velocity (m/s).

What does the law of conservation of momentum state?

The total momentum at the start = the total momentum at
the end in a closed system.

Momentum is a vector quantity so what does it have as well

as size?
A direction.
If two objects with equal mass push apart from rest, what
can we say about their momentums?
They will be equal and opposite so they will move apart at
equal speeds.
What if one of the objects is heavier?
It will move with a lower speed as its mass is greater but
the momentum must be equal.
In a collision, what three factors affect the force of the
impact?
The mass. Greater mass means greater momentum.
The change of velocity.
The duration of the impact (how long it takes for the
object to slow down).
How do crumple zones protect you?
They increase the impact time and so reduce the impact
force.
Why does a longer impact time and a smaller mass produce
a smaller impact force?
The deceleration is lower (deceleration is change of
velocity time) if the time is longer.
Impact force = mass x deceleration
What happens to momentum in a two-vehicle collision?
The change in momentum of one vehicle is equal and
opposite to the change in momentum of the other vehicle.
How do seat belts and air bags protect you?
They spread the force across the chest.
They increase the impact time so reduce the impact force.

What are side impact bars and crumple zones designed to

do?
Give way so the impact time is increased.

How do accident investigators work out the speed of a car

before an impact?
Take measurements from the crash site and use the law of
conservation of momentum to calculate initial velocities.

What special laws protect children in cars?

Baby seats must face backwards for extra safety and all
small children must use a child car seat.
What is static electricity?
Charged trapped on an insulating material.

What charge does an object have if it gains electrons?

A negative charge.

What charge does an object have if it loses electrons?

A positive charge.

How can you charge an insulator?

Using friction by rubbing them with a dry cloth.

If two objects have the same charge what do they do?

Repel each other

If two objects have opposite charges what do they do?

Attract each other
What does a circuit diagram show?
How components are connected.

What is a battery?
Two or more cells connected together..

What is an electric current?

A flow of charge. Negatively charged electrons move
through metals transferring energy.

What does the size of an electric current show?

The rate of flow of charge which is the amount of charge
passing every second.

How are current and charge related?

Current (Amperes) = charge (Coulombs) time (seconds)
I=Q/t
What device measures current?
An ammeter.

How is an ammeter connected?

In series.

What is potential difference?

The work done (=energy transferred) by each coulomb of
charge that flows. V = W/Q

What device measures potential difference?

A voltmeter.

How is a voltmeter connected?

In parallel across the component to be tested.
What is the symbol for a lamp?

What is the symbol for a cell?

What is the symbol for a fixed resistor?

What is the symbol for a variable resistor?

What are the symbols for a diode and a light emitting

diode?

What are the symbols for a thermistor and a light

dependent resistor?

What does a diode do?

Allows current to flow in one direction only.
What is resistance?
How difficult it is for current to flow in a circuit.
How is resistance calculated?
Resistance (Ohms) =
potential difference (Volts) current (Amps). R = V/I
What does Ohms law state?
The current through a resistor at constant temperature is
directly proportional to the potential difference across it.
(H) What causes resistance?
Electrons pushing their way through vibrating metal ions in
the wire.
What does the graph for an Ohmic conductor look like?
Why does the graph for a filament lamp have this shape?

The resistance increases as the current increases because

the wire gets hotter. (H) Because the metal ions are
vibrating more it is harder for the electrons to pass
through the wire.
What does the graph for a diode look like?
The resistance in the reverse direction is very high.
What is a thermistor?
A device which has lower resistance
when it gets hot.
What is a light dependent resistor?
A device with lower resistance in bright light.
What is true about the current in a series circuit?
It is the same in each component.

What do you get if you add together the potential

differences across all the components?
The total potential difference for the power supply. It is
shared between all the components in a series circuit.

How could you double the potential difference of the cells

in the circuit?
Use twice as many cells. (Make sure they are all connected
in the same direction)

How do you find the total resistance of a series circuit?

Add up the resistances of all the components.
What is true about the current in a parallel circuit?
Different currents can flow through each component.
You add together the current through each component to
find the total current.
The bigger the resistance, the smaller the current through
that component.

What do is the rule for the potential differences across

the components in a parallel circuit?
The potential difference is then same across each
component.

How do you calculate the current through a resistor in a

parallel circuit?
Current (A) = potential difference (V) resistance (Ohms)
What do we call current in one direction?
Direct current.
What do we call current that changes direction 50 times a
second?
Alternating current.

What is peak voltage ?

The maximum voltage measured from zero volts for an
alternating supply.

What two wires are in every mains circuit?

A live wire which has alternate positive and negative
voltages and a neutral wire that is always at zero volts.

(H) How do we measure the frequency of an a.c. supply?

Measure the time period of waves on a screen and use the
formula.. frequency = 1/time for one cycle
What are sockets and plugs made of?
Stiff plastic which is a good insulator.
What is inside a mains cable?
Two or three copper wires (copper is a good conductor)
with plastic insulation round them, all inside a flexible
plastic outer layer.
What are the colours of the wires in a three-pin plug?
Live wire is brown
Neutral wire is blue
Earth wire is green and yellow.
How can you tell which pin is connected to the earth wire?
It is the longest one and it earths the metal case of the
appliance.
What are two-core cables used for?
Appliances that have plastic outer cases so are double
insulated.
What is inside a fuse?
A thin wire that heats up and melts if the current is too
large, cutting off the current.
How is a fuse fitted?
In series with the live wire so it cuts the appliance off
if it blows and protects it.
What is a circuit breaker?
An electromagnetic switch that trips if too much
current passes through. It works faster than a fuse and
can be reset easily.
Why is a residual current circuit breaker even better
(RCCB) ?
It is more sensitive as it compares the current in the
live and neutral wire and cuts it off if it is different.
Why doesnt an appliance with a plastic case need to be
earthed?
The plastic case insulates it and cant become live.
What is the power of an electrical appliance?
The energy transferred each second
Power (W) = energy transferred (J) /time (s).

How can it be calculated for an appliance?

Power supplied (W) = current (A) x potential difference
(V).

What size fuse should you use in a circuit?

One with a rating just above the normal working current
of the device.

How would you calculate the correct fuse rating?

Correct rating (A) =
electrical power (W) potential difference (V)
What is an electric current?
The rate of flow of charge

How do you calculate charge?

Charge (Coulombs) = current (A) x time (s)

(H) What happens to a resistor when charge flows

through it?
It gets hot as energy is transferred to it.

(H)How is the energy transferred calculated?

energy transferred = potential difference x charge

(H) What is the source of the electrical energy

transferred to all the components in a circuit?
The battery.
Why are electrical devices dangerous?
They can cause electric shocks and fires.

What safety precautions should you take?

Never touch an appliance, plug or socket with wet hands.
Never touch a bare wire.
Check cables and plugs for damage.
Check smoke alarms and infrared sensors.

What features should you consider when choosing an

appliance?
The power and the efficiency. Higher power means it is
more expensive to run per minute.
What are the advantages of low energy bulbs over
filament and halogen bulbs?
They are more efficient as they dont get as hot, they
are lower power so cost less to run, they last longer.
What is in a radioactive substance?
Unstable nuclei that emit radiation to become stable.

What are the three types of radiation?

Alpha, beta and gamma.

Radioactive decay is random. What does this mean?

You cant predict it or influence it.

What is background radiation?

Radiation from substances in the environment, space or
from X-ray machines.

How can we detect radioactivity?

Use a Geiger counter.
Where is most of the mass of an atom?
In a tiny nucleus.
Who demonstrated this and how?
Rutherford and his team by firing alpha particles at a
metal foil and seeing that some were scattered through
large angles.
Which model replaced the plum pudding model?
The nuclear model.
What are isotopes of an element?
Atoms with the same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons.
What does an alpha particle ()consist of?
Two protons and two neutrons like the nucleus of a helium
atom. It has a mass of 4 and a charge of +2
What is a beta particle () ?
A fast moving electron created in the nucleus when a
neutron turns into a proton. Mass = 0 Charge = -1
What is gamma radiation () ?
Radiation with no charge or mass.
(H) What happens to the nucleus when an alpha particle is
emitted?
The mass number goes down by 4 and the atomic number
goes down by 2.
(H) What happens to the nucleus when a beta particle is
emitted?
A proton is formed from a neutron so the atomic number
increases by one but the mass number stays the same.
(H) What happens to the nucleus when a gamma wave is
emitted?
There is no change.
What is the range of each type of radiation in air?
alpha = about 5cm beta = about 1m gamma = unlimited.
What can stop them?
alpha = thin paper beta = 5mm aluminium
gamma = thick lead or >1m concrete
What happens to alpha and beta radiation in a magnetic
field?
They are deflected in opposite directions. Alpha is harder
to deflect as it is heavier Gamma is not deflected
What happens to alpha and beta radiation in an electric
field?
Alpha particles are attracted towards the negative plate
due to their positive charge and beta particles are
attracted towards the positive plate as they are negatively
charged. Alpha particles are deflected less , even though
they have a bigger charge, as their mass is about 8000
times greater.
What is ionisation?
Knocking electrons out of atoms to form ions. It can
damage or kill cells.
Which radiation is the most ionising?
alpha > beta > gamma.
What is the half-life of an isotope?
The average time it takes for half the nuclei to decay and
for the count rate to halve.
What does activity measure?
The number of nuclei that decay each second.
How can we use radioactivity?
For automatic thickness monitoring. A long half-life should
be chosen and probably a beta-source which can penetrate
thin metal.
Smoke detectors contain an alpha emitter to ionise air.
Radioactive tracers flow through your body and build up if
there are blockages. They should be beta or gamma
emitters with half-lives of a few hours or days.
What is radioactive dating?
Using carbon dating for organic things and uranium dating
for rocks to find the age of material using known half lives
for radioactive elements.
What type of reaction happens in a nuclear reactor?
Nuclear fission.
What happens during nuclear fission?
A large nucleus splits into two smaller fragments and
releases two or three neutrons.
How does this produce a chain reaction?
The neutrons collide with other nuclei and cause more
fission to happen.
What is used as the fuel?
Uranium-235 or plutonium-239.
How is the chain reaction controlled?
Control rods absorb neutrons so
that only one goes on to produce
further fission.
Water is a coolant and transfers
energy to a heat exchanger.
What type of reaction happens in a star like the Sun?
Nuclear fusion.
What happens during nuclear fusion?
Two small nuclei are forced together to form a single
larger nucleus. Energy is released.
How does this happen?
Two light nuclei collide at very high speed.
Why are fusion reactors hard to make?
It needs to be at very high temperature to overcome the
repulsion of positive nuclei. The nuclei are difficult to
contain.
Name some sources of background radiation.
Cosmic rays, food and drink, medical imaging, nuclear
weapon testing, radon gas.
What is radon gas?
An isotope that emits alpha radiation and seeps into
houses from the ground.
What happened at Chernobyl?
A nuclear reactor exploded.
Could it happen again?
Most reactors have a different design and have a high-
speed shutdown system.
How is nuclear waste stored?
In safe and secure conditions, sometimes underground.
How do you reduce radioactive risks to workers?
Limit time of exposure, limit the size of the dose, use
tools with long handles, use concrete or lead shields.
How was the Universe created?
By the Big Bang about 13 billion years ago.
What is a galaxy?
A collection of billions of stars.
What was the early Universe like?
A dark, patchy cloud of hydrogen and helium.
What force pulled matter together?
Gravity.
What is a protostar?
A gas and dust cloud in space that could go on to form a
star.
What is the life cycle for a low mass star like our sun?
Protostar main sequence star red giant white dwarf
black dwarf
What is the life cycle for a high mass star?
Protostar main sequence star red supergiant
supernova neutron star black hole if the mass is large
enough.
What is a supernova?
The explosion of a supergiant after it collapses.
Where are the light elements formed?
In stars due to nuclear fusion.
Where are elements heavier than iron formed?
In supernova explosions.
How do the elements end up in planets?
The planets form from the debris around new stars.