APII Lecture Chapter 1

Chapter 12
Part A
Neural Tissue
Lecture Presentation by
Lee Ann Frederick
University of Texas at Arlington
2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

How to Approach the Course Material
Follow the directions in the CANVAS Module

associated with the chapter that you are studying.
As you read the chapter, follow along with the
Powerpoint slides associated with that chapter
and add important notes/details that help clarify
the material. Note: The PowerPoint presentation
will guide you through the chapter material.

How to Approach the Course Material
Complete the Mastering AandP (MAP) Homework
after you have read the chapter. Since MAP is
considered a homework assignment, I strongly
encourage you to use the book to help you.
The MAP Homework is worth 10% of your grade
(corresponds to 1 letter grade), so you want to do
as well as possible on each assignment. Do not
take these assignments lightly. I have seen
students drop a letter grade, because they scored
poorly on the Homework while I have seen others
raise their grade by a letter, because they did well.

Helpful Hints to Prepare for Quizzes and Exams:
Questions on the Quizzes/Exams will be derived

from the following sources:
MAP Homework questions (1/3rd of the questions)
End of Chapter Study Area multiple choice
quizzes (1/3rd of the questions)
Chapter Focus Point questions and any additional
material posted in the module (animations, etc)
(1/3rd of the questions)

An Introduction to the Nervous System
Learning Outcomes
12-1 Describe the anatomical and functional
divisions of the nervous system.
12-2 Sketch and label the structure of a typical
neuron, describe the functions of each
component, and classify neurons on the
basis of their structure and function.
12-3 Describe the locations and functions of the
various types of neuroglia.

Learning Outcomes
12-4 Explain how the resting membrane potential
is created and maintained.
12-5 Describe the events involved in the
generation and propagation of an action
potential.
12-6 Discuss the factors that affect the speed with
which action potentials are propagated.

Learning Outcomes
12-7 Describe the structure of a synapse, and
explain the mechanism involved in
synaptic activity.
12-8 Describe the major types of
neurotransmitters and
neuromodulators,
and discuss their effects on
postsynaptic
membranes.
12-9 Discuss the interactions that enable
information processing to occur in
neural
The Nervous System

Includes all neural tissue in the body
Neural tissue contains two kinds of cells
1. Neurons
Cells that send and receive signals
2. Neuroglia (glial cells)
Cells that support and protect neurons

Organs of the Nervous System

Brain and spinal cord
Sensory receptors of sense organs (eyes, ears,
etc.)
Nerves connect nervous system with other
systems

12-1 Divisions of the Nervous System
Anatomical Divisions of the Nervous System

Central nervous system (CNS)
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

The Central Nervous System (CNS)

Consists of the spinal cord and brain
Contains neural tissue, connective tissues, and
blood vessels
Functions of the CNS are to process and
coordinate:
Sensory data from inside and outside body
Motor commands control activities of peripheral
organs (e.g., skeletal muscles)
Higher functions of brain: intelligence, memory,
learning, emotion

The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Includes all neural tissue outside the CNS
Functions of the PNS
Deliver sensory information to the CNS
Carry motor commands to peripheral tissues and
systems

The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Nerves (also called peripheral nerves)
Bundles of axons with connective tissues and blood
vessels
Carry sensory information and motor commands in
PNS
Cranial nerves connect to brain
Spinal nerves attach to spinal cord

Functional Divisions of the PNS

Afferent division
Carries sensory information
From PNS sensory receptors to CNS
See figure 12-1 for receptor types
Efferent division
Carries motor commands
From CNS to PNS muscles, glands and adipose
tissue


Receptors and effectors of afferent division
Receptors
Detect changes or respond to stimuli
Neurons and specialized cells
Complex sensory organs (e.g., eyes, ears)
Effectors
Respond to efferent signals
Cells and organs


The efferent division
Somatic nervous system (SNS)
Controls voluntary and involuntary (reflexes) skeletal
muscle contractions


The efferent division
Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
Controls subconscious actions, contractions of
smooth muscle and cardiac muscle, and glandular
secretions
Sympathetic division has a stimulating effect
Parasympathetic division has a relaxing effect

Figure 12-1 A Functional Overview of the Nervous System.
Organization of the Nervous

System
Central Nervous System
Integrate, process, and coordinate
(CNS) (brain and spinal
sensory data and motor commands
cord)
Sensory information Motor commands

within within
afferent division efferent division
Peripheral Nervous
System (PNS) includes
(neural tissue
outside the CNS)
Somatic nervous Autonomic

system (SNS) nervous system
(ANS)
Parasympathetic Sympathetic
division division
Receptors Effectors
Smooth
muscle
Special sensory Visceral sensory Somatic sensory
Cardiac
receptors receptors receptors
muscle
monitor smell, taste, monitor internal monitor skeletal
Glands
vision, balance, and organs muscles, joints, Skeletal Adipose
hearing and skin surface muscle tissue

12-2 Neurons
Neurons
The basic functional units of the nervous system
The structure of neurons
The multipolar neuron
Common in the CNS
Cell body (soma)
Short, branched dendrites
Long, single axon
Terminal branches (telodendria)

12-2 Neurons
The Cell Body

Large nucleus and nucleolus
Perikaryon (cytoplasm)
Mitochondria (produce energy)
RER and ribosomes (produce neurotransmitters)
Many lack centrioles

12-2 Neurons
The Cell Body

Cytoskeleton
Neurofilaments and neurotubules in place of
microfilaments and microtubules
Neurofibrils: bundles of neurofilaments that
provide support for dendrites and axon
Nissl bodies
Dense areas of RER and ribosomes
Make neural tissue appear gray (gray matter)

12-2 Neurons
Dendrites
Highly branched
Dendritic spines
Many fine processes
Receive information from other neurons
8090 percent of neuron surface area

12-2 Neurons
The axon
Is long
Carries electrical signal (action potential) to target
Axon structure is critical to function

12-2 Neurons
Structures of the Axon

Axoplasm
Cytoplasm of axon
Contains neurofibrils, neurotubules, enzymes,
organelles
Axolemma
Specialized cell membrane
Covers the axoplasm

12-2 Neurons

Axon hillock
Thick section of cell body
Attaches to initial segment
Initial segment
Attaches to axon hillock

12-2 Neurons

Collaterals
Branches of a single axon
Telodendria
Fine extensions of distal axon
Axon terminals
Tips of telodendria

Figure 12-2b The Anatomy of a Multipolar Neuron.
Nissl bodies (RER Dendritic branches

and free ribosomes)
Mitochondrion
Axon hillock
Initial segment Axolemma Axon
Telodendria
of axon
Direction of action potential

Golgi apparatus Axon
terminals
Neurofilament
Nucleolus
Nucleus
Dendrite See Figure 123
Presynaptic cell b An understanding of neuron function requires
knowing its structural components. Postsynaptic cell

12-2 Neurons
The Structure of Neurons

The synapse
Area where a neuron communicates with another
cell
Presynaptic cell
Neuron that sends message
Postsynaptic cell
Cell that receives message
The synaptic cleft
The small gap that separates the presynaptic
membrane and the postsynaptic membrane

12-2 Neurons
The Synapse
The synaptic terminal
Is expanded area of axon of presynaptic neuron
Contains synaptic vesicles of neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters
Are chemical messengers
Are released at presynaptic membrane
Affect receptors of postsynaptic membrane
Are broken down by enzymes
Are reassembled at axon terminal

12-2 Neurons
Recycling Neurotransmitters
Axoplasmic transport
Neurotubules within the axon
Transport raw materials
Between cell body and axon terminal
Powered by mitochondria, kinesin, and dynein

12-2 Neurons
Types of Synapses
Neuromuscular junction
Synapse between neuron and muscle
Neuroglandular junction
Synapse between neuron and gland

Figure 12-3 The Structure of a Typical Synapse.
Telodendrion
Axon
terminal
Mitochondrion
Synaptic
vesicles
Presynaptic
membrane
Postsynaptic Synaptic
membrane cleft

12-2 Neurons
Structural Classification of Neurons

Anaxonic neurons (no axon)
Found in brain and sense organs
Small
All cell processes look alike
Bipolar neurons (rare)
Found in special sensory organs (sight, smell,
hearing)
Are small
One dendrite, one axon

12-2 Neurons
Structural Classification of Neurons

Unipolar neurons
Found in sensory neurons of PNS
Have very long axons (1 meter or longer)
Fused dendrites and axon
Cell body to one side
Multipolar neurons
Common in the CNS
Include all skeletal muscle motor neurons
Have very long axons
Multiple dendrites, one axon

Figure 12-4 Structural Classifications of Neurons.
Anaxonic neuron Bipolar neuron Unipolar neuron Multipolar

neuron
Dendrites Dendrites
Initial
segment Cell body
Dendritic
branches Axon
Dendrite
Cell body
Cell body
Axon
Axon
Cell
body
Axon
Axon
terminals
Axon Axon
terminals terminals
a Anaxonic neurons have b Bipolar neurons have c Unipolar neurons have a d Multipolar neurons have
more than two processes, two processes single elongated process, more than two processes;
and they are all dendrites. separated by the with the cell body located there is a single axon and
cell body. off to the side. multiple dendrites.

12-2 Neurons
Three Functional Classifications of Neurons

1. Sensory neurons
Afferent neurons of PNS
2. Motor neurons
Efferent neurons of PNS
3. Interneurons
Association neurons
Hint: see Tips & Tricks page 391 for the acronym
SAME

12-2 Neurons
Functions of Sensory Neurons

Monitor internal environment (visceral sensory
neurons)
Monitor effects of external environment (somatic
sensory neurons)
Structures of Sensory Neurons
Unipolar
Cell bodies grouped in sensory ganglia
Processes (afferent fibers) extend from sensory
receptors to CNS (can be very long, >1meter)

12-2 Neurons
Three Types of Sensory Receptors

1. Interoceptors
Monitor internal systems (digestive, respiratory,
cardiovascular, urinary, reproductive)
Internal senses (taste, deep pressure, pain)
2. Exteroceptors
External senses (touch, temperature, pressure)
Distance senses (sight, smell, hearing)
3. Proprioceptors
Monitor position and movement (skeletal muscles
and joints)

12-2 Neurons
Motor Neurons
Carry instructions from CNS to peripheral effectors
Via efferent fibers (axons)

Two major efferent systems
1. Somatic nervous system (SNS)
Includes all somatic motor neurons that innervate
skeletal muscles
2. Autonomic (visceral) nervous system (ANS)
Visceral motor neurons innervate all other peripheral
effectors (smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands,
adipose tissue)

12-2 Neurons
Motor Neurons
Two groups of efferent axons
CNS motor neurons (1st group-cell bodies are in the
CNS) synapse at autonomic ganglia (collection of
neuron cell bodies of the 2nd group)
Axons from these ganglia synapse at visceral
effectors
dividing axons into:
Preganglionic fibers (1st group)
Postganglionic fibers (2nd group)

Group 1 Group 2
www.austincc.edu
12-2 Neurons
Interneurons
Most are located in brain, spinal cord, and
autonomic ganglia
Between sensory and motor neurons
Are responsible for:
Distribution of sensory information
Coordination of motor activity
Are involved in higher functions
Memory, planning, learning

12-3 Neuroglia
Neuroglia
Half the volume of the nervous system
Many types of neuroglia in CNS and PNS

12-3 Neuroglia
Four Types of Neuroglia in the CNS

1. Ependymal cells
2. Astrocytes
3. Oligodendrocytes
4. Microglia

Figure 12-5 An Introduction to Neuroglia (Part 1 of 2).
Neuroglia
are found in
Central Nervous
System
contains
Ependymal Astrocytes Oligodendrocytes Microglia

cells
Line ventricles Maintain bloodbrain Myelinate CNS Remove cell
(brain) and central barrier; provide axons; provide debris,
canal (spinal cord); structural support; structural wastes, and
assist in regulate ion, nutrient, framework pathogens by
producing, and dissolved gas phagocytosis
circulating, and concentrations;
monitoring absorb and recycle
cerebrospinal fluid neurotransmitters;
form scar tissue after
injury

12-3 Neuroglia
Ependymal Cells (CNS)

Form epithelium called ependyma
Line central canal of spinal cord and ventricles of
brain
Secrete cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Have cilia or microvilli that circulate CSF
Monitor CSF
Contain stem cells for repair

12-3 Neuroglia
Astrocytes (CNS)
Maintain bloodbrain barrier (isolates CNS)
Create three-dimensional framework for CNS
Repair damaged neural tissue
Guide neuron development
Control interstitial environment

12-3 Neuroglia
Oligodendrocytes (CNS)
Myelination
Increases speed of action potentials
Myelin insulates myelinated axons
Makes nerves appear white
Nodes and internodes
Internodes myelinated segments of axon
Nodes (also called nodes of Ranvier)
Gaps between internodes
Where axons may branch

12-3 Neuroglia
Myelination
White matter
Regions of CNS with many myelinated nerves
Gray matter
Unmyelinated areas of CNS

12-3 Neuroglia
Microglia (CNS)
Migrate through neural tissue
Clean up cellular debris, waste products, and
pathogens

Figure 12-6b Neuroglia in the CNS (Part 1 of 2).
Gray matter
White matter
CENTRAL CANAL
Ependymal
cells
Gray
matter
Neurons
Microglial
cell

Figure 12-6b Neuroglia in the CNS (Part 2 of 2).
Gray matter
White matter
Myelinated
axons
Internode
Myelin Oligodendrocyte
(cut) Astrocyte
Axon Axolemma
White
matter
Node
Unmyelinated
axon
Basement
membrane
Capillary
b A diagrammatic view of neural tissue in the CNS, showing relationships between neuroglia
and neurons
12-3 Neuroglia
Neuroglia of the Peripheral Nervous System

Ganglia
Masses of neuron cell bodies
Surrounded by neuroglia
Found in the PNS

Figure 12-5 An Introduction to Neuroglia (Part 2 of 2).
Neuroglia
are found in
Peripheral Nervous System

contains
Satellite cells Schwann cells
Surround neuron Surround all axons in

cell bodies in PNS; responsible for
ganglia; regulate O2, myelination of
CO2, nutrient, and peripheral axons;
participate in repair
neurotransmitter
process after injury
levels around
neurons in ganglia

12-3 Neuroglia
Neuroglia of the Peripheral Nervous System

Satellite cells
Surround ganglia
Regulate environment around neuron
Schwann cells
Form myelin sheath around peripheral axons
Outer surface= neurilemma
One Schwann cell sheaths one segment of axon
Many Schwann cells sheath entire axon

Figure 12-7a Schwann Cells, Peripheral Axons, and Formation of the Myelin Sheath (Part 1 of 2).
Axon hillock
Nucleus
Myelinated
internode
Initial Dendrite
segment
(unmyelinated)
Nodes
Axon
Axolemma
Myelin covering
internode
a A myelinated axon, showing the organization

of Schwann cells along the length of the axon.
Figure 12-7a Schwann Cells, Peripheral Axons, and Formation of the Myelin Sheath (Part 2 of 2).
Schwann
cell nucleus
Myelin covering
internode
Neurilemma
Axon
Myelin sheath TEM 20,600
a A myelinated axon, showing the organization

of Schwann cells along the length of the axon.

12-3 Neuroglia
Neurons and Neuroglia

Neurons perform:
All communication, information processing, and
control functions of the nervous system
Neuroglia preserve:
Physical and biochemical structure of neural tissue
Neuroglia are essential to:
Survival and function of neurons

12-3 Neuroglia
Neural Responses to Injuries in PNS

Wallerian degeneration
Axon distal to injury degenerates
Schwann cells
Form path for new growth
Wrap new axon in myelin
Nerve Regeneration in CNS
Limited by chemicals released by astrocytes that:
Block growth
Produce scar tissue

12-4 Membrane Potential
Ion Movements and Electrical Signals

All cell plasma membranes produce electrical
signals by ion movements
Membrane potential is particularly important to
neurons

Five Main Membrane Processes in Neural

Activities
1. Resting potential
The membrane potential of resting cell
2. Graded potential
Temporary, localized change in resting potential
Caused by stimulus


Activities
3. Action potential
Is an electrical impulse
Produced by graded potential
Propagates along surface of axon to synapse


Activities
4. Synaptic activity
Releases neurotransmitters at presynaptic
membrane
Produces graded potentials in postsynaptic
membrane
5. Information processing
Response (integration of stimuli) of postsynaptic
cell

The Membrane Potential

Three important concepts
1. The extracellular fluid (ECF) and intracellular
fluid (cytosol) differ greatly in ionic
composition
Concentration gradient of ions (Na+, K+)
2. Cells have selectively permeable membranes
3. Membrane permeability varies by ion

Passive Forces Acting across the Plasma

Membrane
Chemical gradients
Concentration gradients (chemical gradient) of
ions (Na+, K+)
Electrical gradients
Separate charges of positive and negative ions
Result in potential difference

Figure 12-9 Resting Membrane Potential (Part 1 of 2).
Passive Chemical Gradients Active Na+/K+ Pumps
The intracellular concentration Sodiumpotassium

of potassium ions (K+) is (Na +/K +) exchange
relatively high, so these ions pumps maintain the
tend to move out of the cell concentration of sodium
through potassium leak and potassium ions across
channels. Similarly, the the plasma membrane.
extracellular concentration of
sodium ions (Na+) is relatively
high, so sodium ions move
into the cell through sodium
leak channels. Both of these
movements are driven by a
concentration gradient, or
chemical gradient.

+
Cl
+
+ +
+ + +
+ + 3 Na +
+ +
+ +
+ + + +
Sodium
K+ leak potassium Na+ leak
channel exchange channel
pump

+ +
+ ATP ADP
+2 K+
+ + +
+ Protein
Protein
+
+
KEY
+ Sodium ion (Na+)
+ Potassium ion (K ) +
Chloride ion (Cl )

-

Figure 12-9 Resting Membrane Potential (Part 2 of 2).
Passive Electrical Gradients Resting Membrane

Potassium ions leave the Potential
cytosol more rapidly than Whenever positive and
sodium ions enter because negative ions are held apart,
the plasma membrane is much a potential difference arises.
more permeable to potassium We measure the size of that
than to sodium. As a result, potential difference in
there are more positive millivolts (mV). The resting
charges outside the plasma membrane potential for
membrane. Negatively charged most neurons is about 70
protein molecules within the mV. The minus sign shows
cytosol cannot cross the that the inner surface of the
plasma membrane, so there plasma membrane is
are more negative charges on negatively charged with
the cytosol side of the plasma respect to the exterior.
membrane. This results in an
electrical gradient across
the plasma membrane.

30
0
+ 70 EXTRACELLULAR
+3 FLUID
mV
0 +
+
+ + + + + + +
Plasma
membrane

CYTOSOL
+
Protein
+ +
+ +
KEY
+
+

Protein Sodium ion (Na+)
+ + Potassium ion (K+)

+
Chloride ion (Cl-)

Electrical Currents and Resistance

Electrical current
Movement of charges to eliminate potential
difference
Resistance
The amount of current a membrane restricts

The Electrochemical Gradient

For a particular ion (Na+, K+) is:
The sum of chemical and electrical forces
Acting on the ion across a plasma membrane
A form of potential energy

Equilibrium Potential
The membrane potential at which there is no net
movement of a particular ion across the cell
membrane
Examples:
K+ 90 mV
Na+ 66 mV

Figure 12-10a Electrochemical Gradients for Potassium and Sodium Ions.
Potassium Ion
Gradients
a At normal resting membrane potential, an electrical gradient
opposes the chemical gradient for potassium ions (K +). The
net electrochemical gradient tends to force potassium ions
out of the cell.
Potassium Potassium Net potassium

chemical electrical electrochemical
gradient gradient gradient
Resting
membrane
potential + +
70 mV
+ + +
+ + + + + +
Plasma
membrane

+ + + + + + +
+ + + K +
+
Protein +
Cytosol
Figure 12-10b Electrochemical Gradients for Potassium and Sodium Ions.
Potassium Ion Gradients

b If the plasma membrane were freely permeable to potassium
ions, the outflow of K+ would continue until the equilibrium
potential (90 mV) was reached. Note how similar it is to the
resting membrane potential.
Potassium Potassium
chemical electrical
gradient gradient
Equilibrium
potential
+ + + + + +
90 mV
+ + + +
+ + + + + + +
Plasma
membrane

+ + + + + + +
+ Protein

K +
+ + +
Cytosol
Figure 12-10c Electrochemical Gradients for Potassium and Sodium Ions.
Sodium Ion Gradients

c At the normal resting membrane potential, chemical and
electrical gradients combine to drive sodium ions (Na +)
into the cell.
Sodium chemical Sodium Net sodium

gradient electrical electrochemical
gradient gradient
Resting
membrane + + +
potential + + + +
70 mV + + +
+ +
+ + + +
+ + + + + +
Plasma
membrane

+
+ + +
+
+ Cytosol Protein
Figure 12-10d Electrochemical Gradients for Potassium and Sodium Ions.
Sodium Ion
d Gradients
If the plasma membrane were freely permeable to sodium ions,
the influx of Na+ would continue until the equilibrium potential
(+66 mV) was reached. Note how different it is from the resting
membrane potential.
Sodium Sodium
chemical electrical
gradient gradient
Equilibrium
potential + + + +
+66 mV + +
+ + + + +
+ + + +
+

Plasma
membrane
+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + + +
+
+ + +
+ + Cytosol + + Protein +
Active Forces across the Membrane

Sodiumpotassium ATPase (exchange pump)
Is powered by ATP
Carries 3 Na+ out and 2 K+ in
Balances passive forces of diffusion
Maintains resting potential (70 mV)

The Resting Potential

Because the plasma membrane is highly permeable
to potassium ions:
The resting potential of approximately 70 mV is
fairly close to 90 mV, the equilibrium potential for K+
The electrochemical gradient for sodium ions is very
large, but the membranes permeability to these
ions is very low
Na+ has only a small effect on the normal resting
potential, making it just slightly less negative than the
equilibrium potential for K+

The Resting Potential

The sodiumpotassium exchange pump ejects
3 Na+ ions for every 2 K+ ions that it brings into the
cell
It serves to stabilize the resting potential when the
ratio of Na+ entry to K+ loss through passive channels
is 3:2
At the normal resting potential, these passive and
active mechanisms are in balance
The resting potential varies widely with the type of cell
A typical neuron has a resting potential of
approximately 70 mV
Changes in the Membrane Potential

Membrane potential rises or falls
In response to temporary changes in membrane
permeability
Resulting from opening or closing specific
membrane channels

Sodium and Potassium Channels

Membrane permeability to Na+ and K+ determines
membrane potential
They are either passive or active

Passive Channels (Leak Channels)

Are always open
Permeability changes with conditions
Active Channels (Gated Channels)
Open and close in response to stimuli
At resting potential, most gated channels are
closed

Three States of Gated Channels

1. Closed, but capable of opening
2. Open (activated)
3. Closed, not capable of opening (inactivated)

Three Classes of Gated Channels

1. Chemically gated channels
2. Voltage-gated channels
3. Mechanically gated channels

Chemically Gated Channels

Open in presence of specific chemicals (e.g., ACh)
at a binding site
Found on neuron cell body and dendrites

Voltage-gated Channels
Respond to changes in membrane potential
Have activation gates (open) and inactivation
gates (close)
Characteristic of excitable membrane
Found in neural axons, skeletal muscle
sarcolemma, cardiac muscle

Mechanically Gated Channels

Respond to membrane distortion
Found in sensory receptors (touch, pressure,
vibration)

Figure 12-11a Gated Channels.
a Chemically gated channel
Resting state
Presence of ACh
Binding
ACh + site
Gated
Channel closed channel
+ +
+
+ +
Channel open
A chemically gated (ligand-gated)

Na+ channel that opens in response
to the presence of ACh (ligand) at a
binding site.

Figure 12-11b Gated Channels.
b Voltage-gated channel
Activation
gate
70 mV
+ +
Inactivation
Channel closed gate
60 mV +
+
+
Channel open +
+30 mV +
+
Channel inactivated
A voltage-gated Na+ channel that

responds to changes in the membrane
potential. At its resting membrane
potential of 70 mV, the channel is
closed; at 60 mV, the channel opens;
at +30 mV, the channel is inactivated.

Figure 12-11c Gated Channels.
c Mechanically gated channel
+ +
+ + +
Channel closed
Applied
+ +
+ pressure
+
+ +
Channel open
+ Pressure
+ removed
+ + +
Channel closed
A mechanically gated channel, which

opens in response to distortion of
the membrane.

Membrane Potential Exists across Plasma

Membrane
Because:
Cytosol and extracellular fluid have different
chemical/ionic balance
The plasma membrane is selectively permeable
Membrane Potential
Changes with plasma membrane permeability
In response to chemical or physical stimuli

Graded Potentials
Also called local potentials
Changes in membrane potential
That cannot spread far from site of stimulation
Any stimulus that opens a gated channel
Produces a graded potential

Graded Potentials
The resting state
Opening sodium channel produces graded
potential
Resting membrane exposed to chemical
Sodium channel opens
Sodium ions enter the cell
Membrane potential rises
Depolarization occurs

Figure 12-12 Graded Potentials (Part 1 of 3).
Resting State
Resting membrane with closed chemically gated sodium ion channels
+ + + Extracellular
Initial 70 Fluid
segment + + +
+ mV
+ + +
+ + + +
+ +
+ + + + +

Cytosol

Graded Potentials
Depolarization
A shift in membrane potential toward 0 mV
Movement of Na+ through channel
Produces local current
Depolarizes nearby plasma membrane (graded
potential)
Change in potential is proportional to stimulus

1 Stimulation
Membrane exposed to chemical that opens the sodium ion channels
Stimulus + +
applied + 65 + + + + +
here + + mV + + + + +
+ + +
+ + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + +

+ + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + +

2 Graded
Potential
Spread of sodium ions inside plasma membrane produces a local
current that depolarized adjacent portions of the plasma membrane
+ + + +
Local + + + + + 60 + + 65 + + 70
current + + mV + mV mV
+ + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + +

+ + + + +

+ + + + + + +

+ + + + + + +
+ + + Local current

Graded Potentials
Whether depolarizing or hyperpolarizing, share
four basic characteristics
1. The membrane potential is most changed at the
site of stimulation, and the effect decreases with
distance
2. The effect spreads passively, due to local
currents

Graded Potentials
3. The graded change in membrane potential may
involve either depolarization or hyperpolarization
The properties and distribution of the membrane
channels involved determine the nature of the change
For example, in a resting membrane, the opening of
sodium channels causes depolarization, whereas the
opening of potassium channels causes
hyperpolarization
The change in membrane potential reflects
whether positive charges enter or leave the cell
Graded Potentials
4. The stronger the stimulus, the greater the
change in the membrane potential and the
larger the area affected

Graded Potentials
Repolarization
When the stimulus is removed, membrane potential
returns to normal
Hyperpolarization
Increasing the negativity of the resting potential
Result of opening a potassium channel
Opposite effect of opening a sodium channel
Positive ions move out, not into cell

Graded Potentials
Effects of graded potentials
At cell dendrites or cell bodies
Trigger specific cell functions
For example, exocytosis of glandular secretions
At motor end plate
Release ACh into synaptic cleft

Figure 12-13 Depolarization, Repolarization, and Hyperpolarization.
Chemical
stimulus
Chemical removed Chemical Chemical
stimulus stimulus stimulus
60 applied Repolarization applied removed
Membrane
potential (mV) 70
Depolarization
80
Hyperpolarization Return to resting
membrane potential
Time

APII Lecture Chapter 1

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Chapter 12

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Follow the directions in the CANVAS Module

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2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Questions on the Quizzes/Exams will be derived

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which action potentials are propagated.

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The Nervous System

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Organs of the Nervous System

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Anatomical Divisions of the Nervous System

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The Central Nervous System (CNS)

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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

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Functional Divisions of the PNS

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Functional Divisions of the PNS

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Functional Divisions of the PNS

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Functional Divisions of the PNS

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Organization of the Nervous

Sensory information Motor commands

Somatic nervous Autonomic

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2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Cell Body

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The Cell Body

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Structures of the Axon

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Structures of the Axon

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Structures of the Axon

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Nissl bodies (RER Dendritic branches

Direction of action potential

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The Structure of Neurons

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Structural Classification of Neurons

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Structural Classification of Neurons

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Anaxonic neuron Bipolar neuron Unipolar neuron Multipolar

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Three Functional Classifications of Neurons

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