Sequences (Sec.11.

2)
A sequence is an infinite list of numbers
a1, a2, a3, a4, , ordered by the natural
numbers (n) 1, 2, 3,
Examples: (1) sequence : 1, 2 , 3 , 4 , .
1 1 1

(2) sequence : 0 , 2 , 0 , 2 , 0 , 2 , .

If {an} is a sequence, call an the nth term. A

sequence is also written {a }
n n 1

For above examples

1
(1). a n ; (2). a n 1 (1) n
n
 Limits

Let {a }
n n 1be a sequence. Then
lim a ( R) means
n
n

an approaches as n becomes larger and

larger.

Convention: If sequence{a } has
n n 1

limit, we say that an converges to

and that the sequence is convergent
otherwise the sequence is divergent.
Examples
3n 2 5 3 n52 30
(1) lim 2 lim 3.
n 1
n n2 1 0
n n n 1 1 1

(2) Consider sequence {( 1) n }n 1 , i.e. - 1, 1, - 1, 1,-1,

Then lim ( 1) n does not exist.
n

n 1 n 1

(3). Consider sequence a n n

n 2 1 2
n

Then a n as n , we say a n diverges to -

 Theorem: If lim x f(x) = L and an = f(n),
n
then lim a = L.
ln(nn
) n
Example: Evaluate lim
n n
ln(n) ln( x )
f ( n) so f ( x ) .
Sol: n x
Use L' Hopital' s rule gives
1
ln( x )
lim lim x 0.
x x x 1

ln(n)
Thus by theorem, lim 0.
n n
Limit Laws
Same limit theorems hold as for functions.
Thus
if an and bn are convergent sequences and
lim n an = L , lim n bn = M
then
(i) lim n (an + bn ) = L + M,

(ii) lim n an bn = LM,

(iii) lim n an / bn = L/ M provided M 0.

Also the squeeze law applies:

If an, bn cn for all n and
lim n an = L = lim n cn then lim n bn = L
Example
sin n
Find nlim

n

USEFUL SEQUENCES TO REMEMBER

0, if | c | 1
(1). For constant c, lim c
n
n
1, if c 1
Sequence {c n }n 1 is divergent for c 1 and | c | 1.
(2). For constant c 0, lim c 1 / n 1.
n

cn
(3). For constant c, lim 0.
n n!
Example
1
Evaluate lim (2 1)
n n

Note : (ab) c a c b c

2n 2n + 1 2n + 2 2. 2n, for all n

2 (2n + 1)1/n 21/n.2
By (2) above
lim n 21/n.2 = 2 lim n 21/n = 2
By squeeze law lim n (2n + 1)1/n = 2
 Series

The sum of sequence {a } is
n n 1 called a
series, written

a
k 1
k a1 a 2 a 3 .
Call an the nth term. Add the first n terms:
n
s n a k a1 a 2 a 3 a n .
k 1
Call sn the nth partial sum.
Set n

a
k 1
k lim s n S
n

We say the series converges to sum S

if sn converges to a real number S.
Otherwise we say the series diverges.

So to find a
k 1
k

- start adding the terms one at a time,

starting with the first term a1.
- if sum approach some number, S, then
S is the infinite sum.
- Note: s a a a a
n 1 2 3 n 1 a n

s n1 a n .
Examples

(1). (
n 1
1) n
1 1 1 1 1

Partial sums are s1 1, s 2 0, s 3 1, s 4 0,

oscillates between 0 and - 1 therefore the series diverges.

1 1 1 1 1
(2) Consider series k 1 k ( k 1)

2 6 12 20

1 1 1
Now
k (k 1) k k 1
n
1 n
1 1 1 1 1
sn 1
k 1 k ( k 1) k 1 k k 1 2 2 3
1 1 1 1 1
1 .
3 4 n n 1 n 1

1 1

k 1 k ( k 1)
lim
n
s n lim
n


1
n 1
1. The series converges to 1.
(3) p - series :

1 1 1 1

n 1 n
p
1 p p p , p 0
2 3 4
converges for p 1
diverges to for p 1.
 The n th term test
(Useful to show a series diverges)

If lim a n 0 , then series
n
a
n 1
n diverges.

Note :

From lim a n 0 cannot tell if series a n converges or diverges.
n
n 1

1
Exp. lim p
0 for p 1, but series
n n

1 1 1 1

n 1 n
p
1 p p p
p

2 3 4
diverges if p 1 and converges if p 1.
Example

(1) 1 n
, the n th term : a n 1
n

n 1

lim a n lim 1 0 (in fact limit doesn' t exist)

n
n n

series divergent by the n th term test.

n n
( 2) : an
n 1 2n 1 2n 1
n 1 1
lim a n lim lim 0
n n 2n 1 n 2 1
2
n

series diverges.
Geometric Series: Consider series

a ax ax ax , a 0.
2 n 1

n 1

Sequence of partial sums is given

by s a ax ax
n
n 1

xs n ax ax 2 ax n1 ax n
( s n xs n ) a ax n
(1 x ) s n a (1 x n )
a (1 x n )
sn for x 1.
(1 x )

a (1 x n )
ax
n 1
n 1
lim s n lim
n n (1 x )
Hence :

a
(1) ax n 1
if | x | 1;
n 1 1 x
i.e. converges if | x | 1.
(2) lim ax n1 if | x | 1, therefore series
n

diverges by nth term test if | x | 1.

(3) If x 1 then s n a a 11 a 12 a 1n1 na
so lim s n does not exist.
n

If x 1 then s n a for n odd and s n 0 for n even,

so lim s n does not exist.
n

In both cases above the series ax
n 1
n 1
diverges.
Example
n n 1
1 1 1
(1)
n 1 2

n 1 2 2
(a Geom. series with a x 12 )
1
2
1.
1 1
2
n
2 5
(2) 5 (a Geom. series with a 5, x 3)
2

n 1 3 1 3
2

15.
 Comparison test
If 0 an bn and n1 bn converges

then n1 a n converges.

Examples

1
Show that converges.
n 1
n 1
2

1 1

n 1 n 1
2

n 1
a n where a n
n2 1
1 1 1
Set bn 2 we have n 2 n 2 1 so 0 a n 2 2.
n n 1 n

1 1
Now 2 p ( p - series) with p 2 1 which converges
n 1 n n 1 n

1
so 2 by the comparison test
n 1 n 1