1.

Scientific Method

What is Science?
-image of science to most people
-hard science vs soft science
-subject matter of science determines techniques and
instruments used by it
Science:
-an institution/system and a way of producing knowledge
-the product of the system
-constant changes in the system
-combination of assumptions, orientations, procedures,
techniques, instruments to gain more knowledge

Knowledge of science is organized in terms of theories

Basic foundations of science
to obtain valid generalization -- to generalize results and do it with
confidence
to establish relationships between variables

Importance of relationships to scientists

to enable understanding of a phenomenon (concept) deeply ---
patterns of relationships
to permit making predictions
to determine causal relationships
Alternatives sources to gain knowledge

Authority - accept something to be true because someone in a position of

authority says so, or it is an authoritative publication
advantages -- quick, simple, cheap, benefit from others
experiences and work
disadvantages -- overestimates expertise, plain wrong, use
authority in unrelated area, who is authority, degree of
authority, self interest of people with authority
Alternatives to … (cont.)

Tradition
a special case of authority - authority of the past
accept as true because it is the way things have always been
from a simple prejudice
can be distorted as it is passed down
Alternatives to……… (cont.)

Common sense

-own reasoning / common sense

-valuable in daily living
-gambler’s fallacy- I’ll win the next time
contains contradictory ideas- opposites attract
contains errors, misinformations, prejudice,
beliefs, socio-cultural background
- a non-conscious ideology
Alternatives to ……… (cont.)

Media myths

-important source
-may not accurately reflect social reality
--- sensationalization
-based on limited information within editorial guidelines
-perpetuate myths of a culture
-visual images may be misleading,
stereotyping
Alternatives to……. (cont.)

Personal experience
something happens, experiences -- accept
as true -- seeing is believing
but 4 major problems
- overgeneralization
- selective observation
- premature closure
- halo effect
Basis of Science

How is science better than these other sources of knowledge?

2 pillars of science -- logic and observation

Scientific understanding must : make sense (logical) and correspond

with what we observe

3 major aspects of science:

scientific theory --- deals with the logical aspects of science
data collection --- deals with the observational aspects of
science
data analysis --- looks at patterns of observations, compares
what is logical with what is actual
Differences between science and common sense
--- revolves around the words systematic and controlled
1. common sense is based on “theories and concepts” that are loosely formed
-- he is sick because of his sinful activities
-- he is happy because the day is nice and beautiful

non science uses common sense to explain relationships which are loose,
unsystematic and uncontrolled
two coincidence occurrences of phenomena are used to indicate cause and effect
-- relationships between reinforcement (reward and punishment) and learning

parents and teachers of the 50’s assumed punishment was a more effective agent for
learning
parents and teachers of the present assume reward is more effective
non science --- both are “only common sense”

science will insist on systematic and controlled testing of both relationships

science is based on systematically built theoretical structures, requires testing for
consistency and empirically
science accepts that theories are man-made terms that may or may not exhibit a close
relationship to reality
2. Science uses systematic and empirical methods to test theories and
hypotheses

non science uses common sense to test “hypotheses” but in selective fashions
--- evidence is selected / collected that is consistent with the hypotheses

hypotheis: Asians are science and math oriented

evidence used by non science --- many Asians are engineers and scientists ---
“selection tendency” is a form of psychological phenomenon
there are non-science Asians and less math inclined Asians

Science – must test the relations in lab or field

must test the presumed relationships of teaching methods and achievement,
between intelligent and creativity, between values and administrative
decisions
science insists on systematic, controlled and empirical testing
3. Control in science
--- science tries to systematically rule out variables that are possible “causes” of
the effects under study other than the var hypothesized to be the “causes”

non science seldom bother to control extraneous sources of influence, they

accept explanations that are in accord with their preconceptions and biases
-- slum conditions produce delinquency, so they will disregard delinquency in
non slum areas.

Science will test and control delinquency in different kind of neighbourhoods

4. Explanation of observed phenomena
science explains relations among observed phenomena by ruling out
metaphysical explanation
metaphysical explanation – a proposition that cannot be tested
-- religious faith
-- people in Bangladesh are poor because God wills it
-- it is wrong to be authoritarian
science does not say these are wrong or not true, but science is not
concerned with them
science is concerned with things that can be publicly observed and tested
Two Logical Systems in Science

1.Traditional model of science (Quantitative Model)

goal --- describe reality of human and social interactions and functions
elements of traditional model of science
- theory is used to formulate idea in terms of hypothesis
- operationalization - specifying the meanings of all variables
involved and then measuring the variables
- observation -looking at the world and making measurements of
what is seen

Observation is used to confirm or disconfirm hypothesis -- this is hypothesis

testing
it controls or eliminates factors that would weaken the ability to discover
true shape of reality
 (cont.)
Deductive and Inductive Approaches in TM

I Theories e
d
n u
d
u
Empirical generalizations Hypotheses c
t
c i
t o
i Observations n
o
n

Inductive model -- moves from the particular to the general, from specific
observations to discovery of a pattern
Deductive model -- moves from the general to the specific, from a pattern
that might be logically or theoretically expected to observations that test
whether the expected pattern actually occur ( hypothetico-deductive
method)
Hypothetico-Deductive method
a typical version of the scientific method
provides a systematic approach to problem solving
1. identify a broad problem area
2. define the problem statement
3. develop hypotheses
4. determine measures
5. data collection
6. data analysis
7. intepretation of data
2. Nontraditional Model of Science (Qualitative model)
goal --- describe human social experiences and activities through social and
historical information and the roles they play in human life
elements of Nontraditional model of science
-- reality can be discovered from some standpoint, thus, observer
is always a positioned observer
-- science is just an informative accounts of personal and versions
of reality

Reality is shaped by broad social and historical factors;

-- observations of the diverse accounts used by people in making sense of
their lives allow better and deeper understanding of reality
What is research?

gathering of information needed to answer a question and

thereby help to solve a problem
looking for something

managers say research is academic and theoretical, everyday

problems are practical problems which can be overcome by common
sense!

So….. why do research?

Scientific research

Research is no better than any of the other means of gathering

knowledge/information unless it is done systematically or scientifically
Why?
Scientific research -- challenges the non-conscious idealogy and belief by
scrutinizing them
-- goes beyond common sense since common sense
takes things as given
Scientific research -- describes, explains, understands, foresees, criticizes, and
analyzes existing knowledge or phenomena
-- is systematic, controlled, empirical, amoral, public and
critical investigation of natural phenomena. It is guided by theory and
hypotheses about the presumed relations among such phenomena
Assignment 1:
1. Even if the research carried out in the management area is ‘scientific’, the results will not be
100 percent scientific. So why bother to do it at all? Comment this statement.

Deadline for submission: 1.8.2010

Email submission to : shahmad@feb.unimas.my

Please write your name and matrix number on the assignment.