1 The Cell and It's Function (Class)

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through
1 His blood, the forgiveness of sins..."

The Cell and Its Function
Chapter 2

Dr. Halide L. Abella
Department of Physiology

Topic Outline
I. Organization of the Cell

II. Physical Structure of the Cell
III. Functional Systems of the Cell

Organization of the Cell

Organization of the Cell
•Nucleus
•Cytoplasm
•Nuclear membrane
•Cell membrane
-plasma membrane
•Nucleolus
•Protoplasm
-water
-electrolytes
-proteins
-lipids
-carbohydrates

Water
Principal fluid medium

70-85%
Present in most cells
Except: fat cells

Ions/Electrolytes
Important ions
Potassium, magnesium, phosphate, sulfate and
bicarbonate
Ions in smaller quantities:
Sodium, chloride and calcium
Provide inorganic chemicals for cellular reactions
Necessary for the operation of some cellular control
mechanisms
Required for transmission of electrochemical impulses in
nerve and muscle cells

Proteins
2nd most abundant

10-20% of cell mass
Divided into 2 types
Structural proteins
Functional proteins

Structural Proteins
A. Inside the cell
Form: long filaments
Function:
Form microtubules
 Cytoskeletons of cellular organelles
Form a tangled mass
 Holds the cytoplasm and nucleoplasm together
B. Outside the cell

Fibrillar proteins
In connective tissues and blood vessel walls
In tendons and ligaments

Globular (Functional) Proteins
Form: tubular-globular
Location: mobile in the cytoplasm
others, adherent to membrane structures
Function: mainly enzymes
Catalyze intracellular chemical reactions
Example:
The breakdown of glucose into CO2 and water

Lipids
Phospholipids and cholesterol
2% of the total cell mass
Insoluble in water
Function: form the cell membrane and intracellular
membrane barriers
Triglycerides
Neutral fats
95% of the cell mass in fat cells
Body’s main storehouse of energy-giving nutrients

Carbohydrates
A. Inside the cell
Function
Little function in the cell structure
 Parts of glycoprotein molecules
Major role in nutrition
 1% of total cell mass
 3% in muscle cells
 6% in liver cells
Stored as glycogen
B. Outside the cell

 Dissolved glucose

Carbohydrates

Physical Structure of the Cell

Membranes Lipids
-lipids and proteins -provides barrier
Proteins
-provide specialized pathways
-act as enzymes
Cell Membrane
7.5 to 10 nm thick
Composed mainly of proteins and lipids
Composition Approximate
Percentage
Protein 55%
Phospholipids 25%
Cholesterol 13%
Other lipids 4%
Carbohydrates 3%

Lipid Bilayer
Basic structure
-lipid bilayer
-each layer:
1 molecule thick
-continuous over entire
cell
-with interspersed
globular proteins

Lipid Bilayer
Composed of phospholipids
and cholesterol
Head portion
phosphate end
hydrophilic
water soluble
Tail portion
fatty acid portion
hydrophobic
fat-soluble

Lipid Bilayer
Fatty acid portion
hydrophobic
located in the middle
face each other
Phosphate portion
hydrophilic
faces outward
becomes the 2 surfaces of
the cell membrane
in contact with the ICF
in contact with the ECF

Lipid Bilayer
Cholesterol molecules
Dissolved in the bilayer
Help determine the degree of permeability or
impermeability
Controls the fluidity of the membrane

Cell Membrane Proteins
Most are glycoproteins
2 types
-integral proteins
-peripheral proteins
Function of integral proteins
-Provide structural channels
-for water and water-soluble
substances
-selective
-Carrier proteins
-for subs that cannot penetrate the lipid bilayer
-active transport
-Enzymes
Cell Membrane Proteins
Function of integral proteins
-receptors
-second messengers
Peripheral proteins
-attached to integral proteins
Function:
-as enzymes
-controllers of transport of substances

Membrane Carbohydrates
Glycoproteins
Glycolipids
Most integral proteins are glycoproteins

1/10 of membrane lipids are glycolipids
Proteoglycans
Carbohydrate substances bound to small protein cores
Loosely attached to the outer surface
glycocalyx

Membrane Carbohydrate

Membrane Carbohydrates
Functions
Gives cell an overall negative surface charge
Attach cells to one another
Act as receptors
Some enter into immune reactions

Cytoplasm and Its Organelles
Cytosol -clear fluid portion
-contains proteins, electrolytes & glucose
Dispersed in the cytoplasm
-neutral fat globules
-glycogen granules
-ribosomes
-secretory vesicles
Important organelles
-endoplasmic reticulum
-Golgi apparatus
-mitochondria
-lysosomes
-peroxisomes
Endoplasmic Reticulum

Network of tubular and flat vesicular structures
Interconnected with one another
Walls: lipid bilayer membrane
Contains large amounts of protein
Larger surface area in liver cells

Endoplasmic matrix
Space inside the endoplasmic reticulum
Connected with space between the nuclear membrane
Involved in the metabolic functions of the cell
Multiple enzymes attached to the surface of the ER
Conduct substances that are formed in some parts of
the cell to other areas of the cell

Ribosomes, Rough ER & Smooth ER
Ribosomes
Mixture of RNA and
proteins
Function: synthesis of
protein
Smooth ER
Lipid synthesis

Golgi Apparatus

Golgi Apparatus
Closely related to the ER
Same membrane as the smooth ER
4 or more stacked layers of thin, flat, enclosed
vesicles
Lies near one side of the nucleus
Prominent in secretory cells
Located in the side where substances are extruded

Golgi Apparatus
Function in association with
the ER
“transport vesicles”
Fuse with Golgi apparatus
Process the transported
substances to form
lysosomes, secretory
vesicles, and other
cytoplasmic components
Provide additional processing

Lysosomes
Vesicular organelles
Broken off from the Golgi
apparatus
Function: Intracellular
digestive system –digest:
Damaged cellular structures
Food particles
Unwanted matter

Lysosomes
250-750 nanometers
Typical lipid bilayer membrane
Filled with large number of small granules
Hydrolase enzymes
 Splits organic compound into 2 or more parts
 Combine one part of the compound with H from water
 Combine another part of the compound with the hydroxyl
portion
Lysosomal membrane

Peroxisomes
Formed by replication
Budding off from the smooth ER
Contains catalases
Contains oxidases
Combines oxygen with hydrogen ion forming hydrogen
peroxide
 Together with catalase, will oxidize many substances that are
harmful to cells
 Ex. Alcohol in the body is detoxified by the peroxisomes of the
liver

Secretory Vesicles
Store and then release
into the cytoplasm the
secretory substance
formed in the ER-Golgi
apparatus system
Ex.
Proenzymes stored in
the secretory vesicles of
pancreatic acinar cells

Mitochondria
“powerhouses” of the cell
number varies
Concentrated in areas where
energy metabolism occurs
Variable in size and shape
Lipid bilayer-protein
membrane
Outer membrane
Inner membrane

Mitochondria
Inner membrane
Infoldings form shelves called cristae
Oxidative enzymes
Matrix
Large quantities of dissolved enzymes that operate in
association with the oxidative enzymes
Forms carbon dioxide and water
Releases energy used to synthesize ATP
 Transported out of the mitochondrion and used for cellular
functions
Self-replicating
Contains DNA which controls its replication
Filament and Tubular
Structures of the Cell
Fibrillar proteins
Organized into filaments or tubules
Filaments
Polymers of precursor protein molecules from the
ribosomes
Ex. Actin and myosin filaments in muscle cells
Microtubules
Very strong tubular structures
Polymers of tubulin molecules
Tubular skeletal structure in the center of the cilium
Centrioles and mitotic spindles
Function: act as cytoskeleton

Nucleus
Control center of the cell
Large quantities of DNA – genes
Determine the characteristics of the cell’s
proteins
Control and promote the cell reproduction
 Replication
 Mitosis

Nuclear Membrane
Nuclear envelope
2 separate bilayer
membranes
Outer membrane
Continuous with ER
Space between the 2
membranes
Continuous with that of the
ER
Nuclear pores

Nucleoli and Formation of Ribosomes
Highly staining structures
Don’t have a limiting membrane
Accumulation of large amount of RNA & proteins
Enlarged when the cell is actively synthesizing proteins
Formation:
Starts in the nucleus
Specific DNA genes cause RNA to be synthesized
Stored in the nucleoli
Most transported outward through the nuclear pore into
the cytoplasm
Used with specific proteins to assemble ribosomes

Functional Systems of the Cell

Endocytosis
Ingestion by the cell of very large particles
Principal forms
Pinocytosis
 Ingestion of minute particles that form vesicles OF ECF and
particulate constituents inside the cell cytoplasm
Phagocytosis
 Ingestion of large particles such as bacteria, whole cells., or
portions of degenerating tissue

Pinocytosis
Occurs rapidly in macrophages
Pinocytic vesicles
Small, 100-200 nm in diameter
Only means by which most protein molecules can
enter cells
Rate of pinocytosis is enhanced
When protein molecules attach to the cell membrane

Steps of Pinocytosis
Protein molecules attaching to
the membrane
Specialized protein receptors
Specific for the type of protein
Receptors are concentrated on
the coated pits
Clathrin
Latticework of fibrillar protein
beneath the coated pits
Other contractice filaments
Actin and myosin

Protein molecules bind to the
receptors
Entire pit invaginates inward
Fibrillar proteins cause the borders
to close
Proteins
Small amount of ECF

Invaginated portion breaks away
A pinocytic vesicle is formed
Requires energy from within the

cell – supplied by ATP
Requires the presence of calcium in
the ECF

Phagocytosis
Involves large particles rather than small particles
Tissue macrophages and some of the WBCs
Initiated when particles bind with receptors on the
surface of the phagocyte
Dead cells, bacteria and tissue debris
Bacteria
Attached to a specific antibody and the antibody
attaches to the phagocyte receptor
The antibody acts as an opsonin and the process is
called opsonization

Steps in Phagocytosis
Actin and other contractile fibrils in the cytoplasm
surround the phagocytic vesicle and contract around
its outer edge, pushing the vesicle to the interior.
The contractile proteins then pinch the stem of the

vesicle so completely that the vesicle separates from
the cell membrane, leaving the vesicle in the cell
interior.

Digestion of the Pinocytic and Phagocytic
Foreign Substance Inside the Cell
Lysosomes attach to the vesicle
and empty their acid hydrolases
inside
A digestive vesicle is formed
Enzyme begins hydrolyzing the
engulfed substances
Products of digestion diffuse
through the membrane of the
vesicle into the cytoplasm
Residual body
Excreted by exocytosis

Regression of Tissues and Autolysis of
Cells by Lysosomes
Regression of tissues –brought about by lysosomes
Remove damage cells or damaged portion of cells
Damage to cells causes lysosomes to rupture
Hydrolases digest the surrounding organic substances
Slight damage
Portion is removed
Cell repair follows
Severe damage
Autolysis – entire cell is digested
New cell is formed

Lysosomes
Contain bactericidal agents
Lysozyme –dissolves bacterial cell membrane
Lysoferrin –binds iron and other substances before they
can promote bacterial growth
Acid at pH 5
 activates the hydrolases
 Inactivates bacterial metabolic systems

Systhesis and Formation of Cellular
Structures by the ER & Golgi Apparatus

Specific Functions of the ER
Proteins are formed by the rough ER
Have large numbers of ribosomes attached to it
Protein molecules are synthesized within the structures
of the ribosomes
Some are extruded directly into the cytosol
Many more extruded through the wall of the ER into the
endoplasmic matrix

Synthesis of lipids by the smooth ER
Phospholipids and cholesterol
Rapidly incorporated into the lipid bilayer of the ER itself
 Causes the ER to grow more extensive
ER vesicles or transport vesicles continually break away
from the smooth ER
 To keep the smooth ER from growing beyond the needs of the
cell

Smooth ER
Provide the enzymes that control glycogen breakdown
Provides vast number of other enzymes that are capable
of detoxifying substances that might damage the cell
 Coagulation
 Oxidation
 Hydrolysis
 Conjugation

Specific Functions of the Golgi
Apparatus
Major function
Additional processing of substances already formed in
the ER
Synthesize certain carbohydrates that cannot be
formed in the ER
Formation of hyaluronic acid and chondroitin sulfate
 Major components of proteoglycans secreted in mucus and othe
glandular secretions
 Major components of ground substance in the interstitial spaces
 Filler between collagen fiber and cells
 Principal components of the organic matrix in both cartilage and
bones

Apparatus
Proteins are formed in
the RER
Transported toward the
SER that lies nearest the
Golgi apparatus
Small transport vesicles
continually break away
and fuse with the deepest
layer of the Golgi
apparatus

Apparatus
Fuses and empty their contents
into the vesicular spaces of the
Golgi apparatus
Carbohydrates are added to the
secretion
Secretions are compacted
More compaction and processing
at the outer layer of the GA
Small and large vesicles break away
from the GA carrying compacted
secretory substances
Diffuses throughout the cell
Types of Vesicles Formed by the Golgi
Apparatus
Secretory vesicles
Formed by Golgi apparatus of highly secretory cells
Contain protein substances
To be secreted through the surface of the cell
membrane by exocytosis
 Stimulated by entry of Ca ions into the cell
Lysosomes
Used inside the cell

Use of Intracellular Vesicles to
Replenish Cellular Membranes
Cell membranes loses much of its

substance every time it forms a
phagocytic or pinocytotic vesicle
The vesicular membranes of the Golgi
apparatus continually replenish the cell
membrane

Extraction of Energy from Nutrients
– Function of the Mitochondria

Functional Characteristics of ATP
Adenosine triphosphate
Nucleotide
Nitrogenous base – adenine
Pentose sugar – ribose
3 phosphate radicals
High-energy phosphate bonds
12,000 cal/mole of ATP
Labile – can split instantly on demand

When ATP releases its energy

A phosphoric acid radical is split away
ADP is formed
Energy released
 Energize all of the cell’s other functions
 Synthesis of substances
 Muscular contraction

To reconstitute the cellular ATP

Energy from cellular nutrients causes to recombine
 ADP
 Phosphoric acid
ATP called the energy currency of the cell

It can be spent and remade continually

Chemical Processes in the
Formation of ATP

Uses of ATP for Cellular Function
Transport of substances through multiple membranes in the
cell
Active transport of sodium through cell membrane
Membrane transport of postassium, calcium, magnesium,
phosphate, chloride, urate and hydrogen ions
Synthesis of chemical compounds throughout the cell
Protein synthesis of ribosomes
Synthesis of phospholipids, cholesterol, purines, pyrimidines and
other substances
Mechanical work
Muscle contraction
Ciliary and ameboid motion

Locomotion of Cells

Ameboid Movement
Movement of an entire cell in relation to its
surroundings
Movement of white blood cells through tissues
Begins with the protusion of a pseudopodium
Continual exocytosis
Partially secures itself in a new tissue area
Remainder of the cell is pulled toward the
pseudopodium
Continual endocytosis

Mechanism of Ameboid Movement
Attachment of the
pseudopodium to
surrounding tissues
Cell body pulled forward
toward the point of
attachment
The attachment is effected
by receptor proteins tha
line the insides of the
exocytotic vesicles

Mechanism of Ameboid Movement
Actin in the cytoplasm
Polymerize to form a
filamentous network
Contracts when it bind with
myosin
Process is energized by ATP
Takes place in the
pseudopodium

Cells that Exhibit Ameboid Locomotion
White blood cells
move out of the blood into the tissues
Tissue macrophages
Fibroblasts
Move into damaged areas to help in repair the damage

Control of Ameboid Locomotion
Chemotaxis
Initiates ameboid locomotion
movement results from the appearance of
certain chemical substances in the tissues
Chemotactic substance
Positive chemotaxis
Negative chemotaxis

Cilia and Ciliary Movement
Whiplike movement of cilia on the

surfaces of the cells
Occurs in the
Respiratory airways
Fallopian tubes

Respiratory Airways
Nasal cavity, lower respiratory airways
Whiplike motion of the cilia
Moves mucus at a rate of 1cm/min toward
the pharynx
Clears the passageways of mucus and
particles

Fallopian Tube

Cilia
Covered by an
outcropping of cell
membrane
11 microtubules
Each cilium is an
outgrowth of the basal
body

Mechanism of Ciliary Movement
Axoneme
The microtubules are linked to one another by cross-linkages
Even if the membrane is destroyed , as long as the axoneme is
intact, the cilium can still continue to beat
For the axoneme to continue beating
ATP should be available
Appropriate ionic conditions (magnesium and calcium
during forward motion
The double tubules on the front edge of the cilium slide outward
towards the tip
Those at the back remain in place
Multiple protein arms called dynein
Has ATPase enzymatic activity
Project from each double tubule towards the adjacent one

Kartagener Syndrome
Clinical trial of a congenital syndrome
Situs inversus
Chronic sinusitis
Bronchiectasis
Immotile cilia syndrome
Cilia appeared abnormal
Poorly mobile
Lacks the dynein arm
Immotile spermatozoa

Kartagener Syndrome
Situs inversus
Ciliary beating is necessary for visceral rotation during
embryonic development
Chronic sinusitis and bronchiectasis
Decreased mucus clearance because of the immotile
cilia
History of the patient
Patients present with chronic upper and lower
respiratory tract disease resulting from ineffective
mucociliary clearance. A typical presentation is that
of rhinorrhea and/or mucopurulent discharge since
birth. Immotile spermatozoa result in male sterility

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Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

1 His blood, the forgiveness of sins..."

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

I. Organization of the Cell

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Principal fluid medium

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

2nd most abundant

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

B. Outside the cell

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

B. Outside the cell

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Most integral proteins are glycoproteins

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Requires energy from within the

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

The contractile proteins then pinch the stem of the

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through

Ephesians 1:7 "In Him we have redemption through