Developmental Psychology

Module 5
Middle Childhood:
Cognitive & Physical Development
Tiffany Chenneville, Ph.D.
Department of Psychology
University of South Florida St. Petersburg
Advance Organizer
Theory
Vygotsky
Controversial Issue
Eyewitness Testimony among Children
Vygotskys
Genetic/Sociohistorical
Theory of Development
Lev Vygotsky
1934-1986
Law degree from Moscow University
Also studied literature and philosophy
Ph.D. in psychology from Moscow Institute of
Experimental Psychology
Based writing as opposed to formal coursework
Died of tuberculosis at a young age
Lev Vygotsky
Theoretical ideas proposed in 1960s and 70s
Theory did not reach the U.S. until latter part of 20th
century
Vygotskys early death
Work was completed in Russia at time of socialist
revolution
Vygotsky supported socialist revolution in Russia
Sociohistorical theory of human development
consistent with the orientation of the revolution
Vygotskys Theoretical Tenets
Tried to apply tenets of Marxism to human
development
Believed socialism could eliminate social conflict and
exploitation of those with lower class status
Believed psychological processes were primarily social
in nature
Strongly influenced by social, historical, and cultural contexts
in which children develop
All human cognition takes place within matrix of social
history
Role of formal education on cognitive development
Essential tool of enculturation
Basic Constructs of Vygotskys Theory
Psychological phenomena are social in 2 ways
Psychological phenomena embody cultural artifacts
Psychological phenomena depend on certain social
experiences
Knowledge is socially constructed (or co-
constructed)
Culture symbols, objects, and language
Mediate how children organize mental structures
Basic Constructs of Vygotskys Theory
Cultural values affect development
Random factors (e.g., fate) versus personal
intentions as reasons for behavior
Parents, other adults, and peers are major
determinants in development
Parental interpretations of events influence
childrens responses to events
Basic Constructs of Vygotskys Theory
2 qualitatively different developmental
processes occur
Psychological/socioculturally based processes
Biological processes
Genetic aspect of theory
Biological processes influence development
Impact varies over the lifespan
Strong during infancy
Decreases as social experience becomes dominant
Basic Constructs of Vygotskys Theory
Human development influenced at 3 levels
Phylogenetic
Historical
Ontogenetic
Basic Constructs of Vygotskys Theory
Phylogenetic
Development of human species through evolution
Humans differ from apes
Language
Tools to change environments
Communication over time periods
Basic Constructs of Vygotskys Theory
Historical
Development of human species through history
Developmental sequence in cultural over
generations
Language and cultural artifacts
Memory, thought and other cognitive processes developed
over centuries within cultures
Cultures differ in level and richness
Basic Constructs of Vygotskys Theory
Ontogenetic
Development of the individual through childhood/adulthood
Vygotsky concentrated his research in his area
Development depends on
Biological factors (first)
Acquiring the culturally mediated signs, symbols, and
thought processes of a particular culture (subsequently
and primarily)
Explains variations in individual development across cultures
Microgensis level
Development of competence at a single task or activity
Basis for concept of the zone of proximal development
Basic Constructs of Vygotskys Theory
Children are actively engaged in constructing their
thinking
Action creates their thought
Mental development is process of internalizing the results of
their (primarily) social experiences
Language and cognition are complementary processes
Interface in many ways
Zone of Proximal Development
Area in which social mediation can assist children to
reach new levels of competence
Distance between what tasks the child can do
independent and their potential competence at tasks
that can be achieved with adult or peer assistance
Where new knowledge can be co-constructed
Scaffolding
Vygotskys Stages of Thought and
Language Development
Natural/Primitive Stage
Birth to age 2
Behavior is biologically based
Regulated by preverbal thought and preintellectual speech
Both thought and language present
But develop independently
Not in a form mediated by culture
Primitive forms of organizing behavior (subcortical) transformed as
socially mediated experiences occur
3 functions of verbal expression at this age/stage
Emotional release (e.g., crying)
Social reactions (e.g., laughter at recognition of familiar appearance)
Labels for objects and desires (e.g., Mommy, milk)
Paired through interaction with caregivers
Vygotskys Stages of Thought and
Language Development
Nave Psychology
Ages 2 to 7-8
Children develop nave psychology
Begin to use grammar and syntax of their culture
Words begin to have symbolic function
Children ask for objects
Vocabulary increases
Language and thought begin to have basic connections
Language still nave
Children do not understand its function as the regulator of thought
Private speech develops in preschool
Spontaneous concepts learned in informal learning settings
Private Speech
Running monologues that accompany activities
Develops into inner speech over time
Egocentric communication
It broke
Fantasy play and comments addressed to nonhuman objects
Out of my way
Emotional release and expression
Wow!
Describing ones own activity and self-guidance
Six!
Reading aloud
Sher-lock Hol-mes
Inaudible muttering
Mumbling to oneself
Vygotskys Stages of Thought and
Language Development
Culturally Mediated External Signs
Ages 7 to 12-14
Children begin to use culturally mediated tools to
aid problem solving
Language
Other symbols
Language mediated by a sign system
Conceptual thinking is transmitted through use of words
and symbols
Vygotskys Stages of Thought and
Language Development
Language is crucial tool in understanding how
children learn to think
Language is a true tool of thought
Language is a central cultural tool
Language restructures mind and forms higher-order, self-
regulated thought
Internal speech (soundless speech) aids thinking
Mediation of teachers and peers provide scaffolding
Ability to analyze and synthesize information
emerges
Vygotskys Stages of Thought and
Language Development
Ingrowth Stage
Age 12 to adulthood
Thinking is internalized in congruence with cultural symbols
Early childhood forms of thinking no longer exist in adults
Conceptual thinking enhanced as language and thought
merge
Higher mental functions continue to have social origins
But are affected by cultural constraints
Vygotskys Theoretical Influence
Useful research on practical educational problems
Related to role of language in furthering cognitive
development
Importance of formal education
Zone of proximal development
Functional assessment of children with special needs
Encouragement of private speech to aid problem
solving among young children
Critique of Vygotskys Theory
Gaps in theory
Unclear concepts
Stages of thought and language outlined very
broadly
Need further explication
Especially with regard to interface with cultural
experiences
Vygotsky vs. Piaget
Piaget Vygotsky
Children construct Children construct
knowledge knowledge within
Concerned about sociohistorical context
universals of thought Co-construction

Language development Stressed culturally

separate from cognitive
development
Child learns from direct
interaction with
environment without
parental mediations
mediated thought
Language and cognitive
development intertwined
Parental mediation crucial
to development
Point Break Movie Clip
Movie Clip Quiz
What color was the get away vehicle?
Was it a car, a truck, or a van?
How many bank robbers were there?
How many were wearing masks?
What kind of masks? Provide as much detail as possible.
What were the robbers wearing?
Did all of the robbers have weapons?
If so, what kind of weapons?
Approximately how many people were in the bank?
What did the robbers say? Include all that you can remember.
What other details can you remember?
CONTROVERSIAL ISSUE IN
MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
Cognitive Development
IS THE EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY
OF CHILDREN RELIABLE?
McWilliams, K., Bederian-Gardner, D., Hobbs, S.D., Bakanosky, S., &
Goodman, G.S. (2012). Childrens eyewitness memory and suggestibility:
Revisiting Ceci and Brucks (1993) review. In A.M. Slater & P.C. Quinn
(Eds), Developmental psychology: Revisiting classic studies (pp. 101-117).
Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications Inc.
The Bigger Questions
Is a childs memory reliable?
Are children suggestible?
More suggestible than adults?
Is the eyewitness testimony of adults reliable?
What are the pros and cons of relying on eyewitness
testimony?
Background Information
1980s-90s: Number of high-profile cases
involving child abuse appeared in national
media
Nature of accusations was dramatic
Sexual abuse in childcare settings
Ritual abuse involving child torture
Wee Care Nursery Case
26-year-old Kelly (Margaret) Michaels accused of abusing
children
4-year-old former student said Michaels took his
temperature at school
This led an assistant prosecutor to interview the child and
former classmates
Allegations confirmed and elaborated on
After social worker told parents to talk to their children
Michaels convicted and sentenced to serve 47 years
Later released on appeal
Based, in large part, on psychological research in the area of
childrens suggestibility
Country Walk Case
36-year-old Frank Fuster and 17-year-old wife, Ileana accused
of multiple cases of sexual abuse
Daycare case
Parents concerned about behavior their children were
displaying
3 year investigation and trial where Fusters were accused of
numerous counts of sodomy, rape, and abuse
Kissing childrens penises
Inserting fingers in childrens rectums
Riding on sharks
Eating the head of another person
Country Walk Case
Frank Fuster received several life sentences
Conviction upheld upon appeal
Ileana Fuster received sentence of 10 years prison
plus 10 years probation after turning states evidence
on her husband
Fusters 6-year-old son tested positive for gonorrhea
of the throat
Frank Fuster had prior conviction for child sexual
abuse as well as manslaughter
Porter-Gaud Case
1980s: Principal and teacher at private school in S.C.
accused of sexually molesting several students
Abuse was common knowledge among the students
No one wanted to report the violence
One student who did report was not believed and
reprimanded repeatedly for his accusations
Years later as an adult - a former student went to
authorities
Claims substantiated by the teacher who pled guilty to
sexual abuse
13 boys over 4 decades
Finding Balance
Avoid false allegations vs. obtaining accurate reports?
Distrusting children vs. believing children?

These questions continue to plague researchers

Pros and Cons of
Childrens Eyewitness Testimony
Reveal abuse False reports due to:
Convict perpetrators Suggestibility
Memory errors
Prevent future abuse if
perpetrators are Wrongful convictions
sentenced
Positives and Negatives
True positive
Rightfully accused convicted
Perpetrator is truly guilty and is found guilty

False positive
Wrongful convictions
Accused is not truly guilty, but is found guilty

True Negative
Accused is not truly guilty, and is found not guilty

False Negative
Accused is truly guilty, but is found not guilty
Historical Perspective
Salem Witch Trials often used to discount child
witnesses
But adults also provided false testimony
Most trials in modern times in U.S. that involve childrens
testimony are for crimes prompting societal intervention
Child sexual abuse
Murder
Domestic violence
Kidnapping
Research on childrens eyewitness testimony first
gained prominence in late 1800s-early 1900s
Historical Perspective
First systematic research on suggestibility of children
credited to European psychologists
Binets 1900 publication La suggestibilite
Stern, Varendock, and Lipmann
Results
Harmful effects of repeated leading questioning
Advantages of using free recall/open ended questions over
closed ended (e.g., yes/no) questions
Childrens testimony errors largely the result of non-optimal
questioning
Implications
Many suggested children should not serve as witnesses
Historical Perspective
After initial experiments, psychologists in Europe
focused on individual evaluation of witnesses
Research on childrens suggestibility not undertaken in
any depth
In large part due to legal professions attack on psychological
research
Research in this area was dormant between 1930-
1980 (approximately)
Historical Perspective
Re-emergence of suggestibility research attributed to
4 factors:
Increased admissibility of expert psychological testimony
Desire to conduct research on relevant issues of the time
among social scientists
Including research on social activism such as civil rights
Legal community's search for data related to child witnesses
Due to increase in the number of reported crimes involving
child victims
Logical continuation of research on adult eyewitness
testimony
Historical Perspective
Other factors
Sensationalized abuse cases
Concerns about childrens suggestibility
Ceci & Brucks Landmark Review (1993)
Published in Psychological Bulletin
Review of empirical research published between 1979-1992
Emphasis on relationship between childrens suggestibility and
errors in testimony
Included review of research relating suggestibility to other
factors
Cognitive factors
Trace theory
Source information theory
Social factors
Motivational factors
Biological factors
Trace Theory
Memories are stored in 2 difference traces
Verbatim trace
Rich surface detail about an event
Decays rapidly
Gist trace
More general, summarized version of the meaning of the
event
As verbatim trace decays, people are over time - forced to
rely on gist trace for a memory report
Developmental differences exist in reliance on verbatim vs. gist
traces
Source Monitoring Theory
Suggestibility arises from a person's inability to
determine the correct origin of remembered
information
Errors can occur when a child fails to
differentiate sources of information
An interviewer verbally providing post-event
information as one source of information vs.
Child actually having witnessed or experienced the
event as another source of information
Interplay of Social and Cognitive Factors
Child intentionally makes a false statement to
please the interviewer
Over time, false statements become part of
childs autobiographical memory
Social and cognitive factors may change
developmentally
Important and still worthy of study today
Biological Factors
Effects of arousal and stress
Eyewitness testimony typically involves
Stressful, if not traumatic, events
A stressful context within which children make their
statements (e.g., police office, courtroom)
Ceci and Brucks Conclusions
Significant age differences in suggestibility
Known already from research conducted at turn of
20th century
Children are not incapable of providing
accurate testimony BUT
Childrens susceptibility to inaccuracies is
relatively high when compared to that of adults
Ceci and Brucks Conclusions
Question should not be:
Are children susceptible?
Questions should be:
Are children so much more suggestible than adults that they
might hinder the courts attempts to determine the truth?
Are competency hearings needed to determine whether or
not children should be allowed to testify?
Should judges to required to share with jurors the risks of
suggestibility among children?
Impact and Critique of Ceci and Brucks Review

Mixed reviews
Applauded by many academics and legal
professionals
Paper won the Robert Chin Award
Best Paper of the Year
Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues
Division of American Psychological Association
Impact and Critique of Ceci and Brucks Review

Some negative reactions (e.g., legal scholar

Professor John E. B. Myers)
Negative spin on childrens credibility may thwart
legitimate efforts to protect children
Unnecessarily pessimistic view of child protection
system and childrens credibility
Lack objectivity
Public advocacy publication that tells only one side
of the story
Impact and Critique of Ceci and Brucks Review

Research Impact
Stress, memory, and suggestibility
Individual differences and stressful experiences
Forensic interviews
Legal Impact
Stress, Memory, and Suggestibility
Older literature
Used the terms arousal or stress
Current research focuses on dimension approach
Valence dimension
Positive to negative
Arousal dimension
Boring to exciting
Child witness research most concerned with
experiences that produce affect at intersection of
negative valence and high arousal
Stress, Memory, and Suggestibility
Some theorists suggest a move away from
dimensional approach toward study of discrete
emotions related to child witness memory and
suggestibility
Distress
Fear
Anger
Stress, Memory, and Suggestibility
Older literature
Contradictory findings regarding relationship between arousal and
suggestibility
Arousal positive effects childrens memory and resistance to
suggestion
Arousal has negative consequences for memory and suggestibility
No positive or negative relationship between arousal and suggestibility
Criticism
Differential methodologies responsible for contradictory findings
Stressful nature of the stimulus/experience vs. the traumatic
background of the participants
Memory for stressful or traumatic experiences may differ for
maltreated versus non-maltreated children
Most research focused on non-maltreated children
Stress, Memory, and Suggestibility
More recent research with non-maltreated
children suggest certain factors predict more
memory areas and greater susceptibility to
suggestibility
Childs lack of understanding of the event itself
Lack of parental communication about the event
Childs emotional reaction to the event
 Stress, Memory, and Suggestibility
More recent research with maltreated children
Maltreatment correlated with cognitive delay in several domains
As reflected by performance on intelligence & language tests
Treatment of maltreatment does not adversely affect memory or
increase suggestibility
To the contrary, some attention and memory processes of
maltreated children may benefit memory, decrease suggestibility
Hypervigilant to negative stimuli
More difficulty disengaging attention from negative stimuli
Focus on negative information may increase reliability of
reports
Individual Differences and
Stressful Experiences
Individual differences in childrens and parents reactions to
stressful events may attribute to individual differences in
suggestibility
Individual Differences and
Stressful Experiences
Current research suggests a few reliable predictors of
suggestibility (Bruck & Melnyk, 2004)
Parental attachment (most robust finding in the literature)
Parental avoidant attachment related to memory errors and
suggestibility
Parental secure attachment related to more accurate and
complete memory
Intergenerational transmission of avoidance of stress-
inducing information (Dykas et al., 2011)
Childs memory for stressful event associated with caregivers
behavior before, during and after the event
Lack of discussion likely to result in memory errors/suggestibility
Individual Differences and
Stressful Experiences
Implications for real world
Children most often disclose sexual abuse to their
mothers (if they disclose)
Mothers questioning during disclosure and
discussion afterward may be critical legal issues
Defense attorney might accuse mother of leading the child
into a false report of sexual abuse
Because of research in this area, attorneys
interested in how the mother interviewed the child
More open ended, non-leading questioning techniques
recommended in practice
Forensic Interviews
Research on child forensic interviews has expanded greatly
since Ceci & Brucks review in 1993
Clearer and more comprehensive understanding of how to
interview children in legal context
Delicate and complex process
Goal of interview
To obtain the most accurate and complete report from the witness
Increase true reports of abuse
Decrease false reports of abuse
Interview must be aware of
Type of questions
Timing of questions
Frequency of questions
Forensic Interviews
Concerns about suggestibility
May lead to false reports (as focused on by Ceci & Bruck,
1993)
May lead to denials of real abuse
May lead children to omit critical details of real abusive event
Ideal world
Obtain true report by asking a few open ended questions
Children who have been abused do not always disclose when
asked only open ended questions
Children may not understand the context of this type of
questioning
May think interviewer wants broad as opposed to specific information
Disclosures that do occur may be misinterpreted
Forensic Interviews
Child forensic interview protocols (developed since Ceci &
Bruck, 1993)
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD)
Protocol (Lamb, Orbach, Hershkowitz, Esplin, & Horowitix, 2007)
Forensic interviewing of children and child sexual abuse cases
Structured interview
Focuses on free recall questions
Followed by cued questions that incorporate information provided by
the child
Prohibits the use of props
Young childrens reports may be particularly susceptible to
adverse effects of post-event information
Avoid questioning that may include inaccurate information about the
event
Forensic Interviews
Current research suggests many problems with use of
anatomically correct dolls during interviews
Was not uncommon at the time of Ceci & Brucks (1993) review
Ceci & Bruck argued dolls are highly suggestive of sexual abuse
Their use may produce false reports
Research suggest dolls no more problematic than other props used
during interviews but
Particularly problematic when/if used in context of highly leading
questions
Human figure drawings preferred over dolls
Concerns about human figure drawings as well
Legal Impact
Taint hearings
Due to psychological research on memory errors/childrens
suggestibility
Pre-trial hearing to decide if coercive interviewing techniques
permanently altered a childs memory
Rendering the childs testimony tainted
Subsequent research suggested memory may not be
permanently altered by coercive questioning
Taint hearings not commonly used now
Rather, attorneys can always question the competence of a
witness
Including children
Legal Impact
US Supreme Court Cases
Kennedy v. Louisiana (2008)
8 year old girl raped and served as witness in case
Perpetrator sentenced to death
Court ruled death penalty not appropriate punishment for
child rape
One of the reasons cited was concern about reliability of
child witnesses
Often suggestible
Wrongful conviction possible
Childs testimony often strongest piece of evidence
Legal Impact
Confusion/Negative Impact
Research on repeated interviewing misinterpreted
Repeated interviewing not necessarily harmful to memory
Repeated interviewing harmful to memory within the
context of other faulty interview techniques
Repeated non-misleading interviewing may enhance
memory and result in additional information
However, repeated interviewing may be very stressful for the
child even if not for memory
Legal Impact
Child Advocacy Centers
Nationwide and worldwide
Promote forensic interviewing of children in a responsible and sensitive
manner
Streamline forensic interview process
Avoid repeated interviewing when possible
Ensure child is interviewed by highly trained professional only once or at
least a limited number of times
Police, district attorney, and Child Protective Services may be present
to observe interview
Videotape interview to provide objective record
Interview technique
Childs responses
Families report greater satisfaction with CAC experiences compared to
standard experience of child forensic interviewing
Can you always believe the children?
Conclusion
Children can be accurate witnesses and resistant to suggestion
Children also can, at times, be highly suggestible