HEAVY EQUIPMENT

SPL4062

YOHANNES LULIE

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 TRACTORS AND RELATED EQUIPMMENT
TRACTOR

Tractor Uses
Tractors have many uses as construction equipment.

Their primary purpose to pull or push loads, they are also used as mounts for many
types of accessories, such as front-end shovels, rippers, bulldozer blade, side booms,
hoes, trenchers, and others.

There are sizes and types to fit almost any job for which they are usable.

Types of Tractors
Tractors may be divided into two major types:
1. Crawler tractors
2. Wheel tractors
Wheel tractors are either two-wheel or four-wheel

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In selecting a tractor several factors should be considered:

1. The size required for a given job

2. The kind of job for which it will be used bulldozing, pulling a scraper, ripping,
clearing land, etc.
3. The type of footing over which it will operate, i.e., high-tractive or low-tractive
efficiency
4. The firmness of the haul road
5. The smoothness of the haul road
6. The slope of the haul road
7. The length of haul
8. The type of work it will do after this job is completed

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Crawler Tractor
Crawler tractors are usually rated by size or weight and power.
The weight is import on many projects. The maximum tractive effort that a unit can
provide is limited to the product of the weight times the coefficient of traction for
the unit and particular road surface, regardless of the power supplied by the
engine. Table 4-3 gives the coefficient of traction for various surfaces.

Table 4-3 Coefficient of traction for various road surfaces

Surfaces Rubber tires Crawler tracks
Dry, rough concrete 0.80-1.00 0.45
Dry clay loam 0.50-0.70 0.90
Wet clay loam 0.40-0.50 0.70
Wet sand and gravel 0.30-0.40 0.35
Loose, dry sand 0.20-0.30 0.30
Dry snow 0.20 0.15-0.35
Ice 0.10 0.10-0.25

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Most manufactures make crawler tractors with some or all models equipment with a
choice of direct drive or torque converter and power shift drives.

Crawler tractors with direct drive

Table 6-1 gives pertinent information an performance data for tractors equipped
with direct drives.
Some manufacturers specifications list two sets of drawbar pulls rated and
maximum.
The rated is the drawbar pull that can be sustained for continuous operation, while
the maximum is the drawbar pull that the tractor can exert for a short period while
lugging the engine, such as when passing over a soft in spot the ground, which
require a temporary higher tractive effort.

Thus, the rated pull should be used for continuous operation. Also the available
drawbar pull is subject to the limitation on traction developed between the tracks
and the ground.

Some manufactures rate their engines under standard condition, namely at 60F
and sea-level elevation, While other rate their engines under more representative
operating condition, such as 85F and up to 2,500 ft elevation above sea level. The
two methods do not give the same results
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Crawler tractors with torque converter and power-shift transmissions
Many crawler tractors are available with torque converter drivers and power-shift
transmissions which eliminate shifting gears.
These drives provide an efficient flow of power from the engine to the tracks by
automatically selecting the speed which is most suitable for the load pulled by
tractor.

Figure 6-2 illustrates the performance curves for a tractor equipped with a torque
converter and a three-speed transmission. Assume that the tractor must provide a
drawbar pull of 50,000lb. The figure indicates that the tractor should be operated in
the first gear and that it will have a maximum speed of 1.33 mph. The gear selected
should be the highest one that will provide the required pull in order to operate at
the highest possible speed.

The equivalent drawbar pull which a tractor must provide, regardless of whether it is
a direct-drive or power-shift type, is the algebraic sum of the pull required by the
towed load, the effect of grade on the tractor, and the effect of increased or
decreased rolling resistance on the tractor.

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Figure 6-1 Crawler tractor pushing a self-loading scraper

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Two-wheel type
1. Increased maneuverability
2. Increased traction
3. Decreased rolling resistance because of the elimination of the extra axle
4. Fewer tires to provide and maintain
Four-wheel type
1. Better confidence of the operator in the machine because of better steering
properties
2. Less tendency to bounce on rough roads
3. Probable greater actual speeds, because of (1) and (2) under four wheel type
4. Ability to operate as an independent unit when separated from the trailing unit
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Figure 6-3 Two-wheel tractor-pulled scraper

Figures 6-4 Four-wheel tractor-pulled scraper

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8,8

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Example
Determine the maximum speed for the tractor of Figure 6-5 for the stated conditions.

Gross vehicle weight loaded 88,000 lb

Grade = 6%
Rolling resistance, 80 lb per ton = 4%
Total resistance = 10%
Required rimpull 88,000 x 0,10 = 8,800 lb

Figure 6-5 reveals that this rimpull can be provided by any one of the three gear ranges.
However, the maximum speed, 8 mph, is obtained in the second range using direct drive.

Another type of performance chart is illustrated in Fig. 6-6. This chart is applicable for a two-
whel tractor and a two-wheel scraper having the following specifications:

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The tractor is equipment with a six-speed power-shift transmission with an overdrive in the top five
speed ranges. The total resistance in percent of vehicle weight is the algebraic sum of the resistance
resulting from grade and rolling resistance. The maximum speed is determined by applying the
following steps:

1. Start with the appropriate vehicle weight on the lower left horizontal scale.
2. Read up this weight line to the intersection with the sloping total resistance line.
3. From this intersection read horizontally to the right to the intersection with the speed range
performance curve.
4. From this intersection read down to the lower right scale to determine the vehicle speed.

If the application of step 3 results in the intersection of the two speed range curves, use the
curve which gives the higher speed.
The following example illustrated the method of using Fig. 6-6.

Example
Determine the maximum speed for the tractor for the stated conditions.

Gross vehicle weight loaded 150,000 lb

Grade = 5%
Rolling resistance, 60 lb per ton = 3%
Total resistance = 8%

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The two dashed lines, representing steps 1, 2, and 3, indicate that the tractor can operate in the
third speed range, using normal or overdrive position. Because the use of overdrive will permit a
speed of 9,0 mph, where as normal will permit a speed of only 8 mph, the former should be
used.

Gradability
Gradability is defined as maximum slope, expressed as a percent, up which a crawler or whell-
type prime mover may move at a uniform speed. The gradability may be determined for an
empty or a loaded vehicle. Thus, the gradability of a tractor only will be greater than for a tractor
that is pulling a loaded vehicle. Gradability may be specified for any desired gear.

The forward motion of a primer mover is limited by the following factors:

1. The power developed by the engine and available as drawbar pull or rimpull.
2. The rolling resistance of the haul road.
3. The gross weight of the prime mover and its load.
4. The grade to be negotiated. Adverse grade adds to the resistance, while favorable grade
subtracts from the resistance.

The gradability of a crawler tractor is determined by subtracting from the available drawbar pull
the total pull required to overcome the rolling resistance on the unit and any load that it will
pull. The surplus drawbar pull is then available to negotiate a grade.

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As the drawbar pull of a crawler tractor, taken from the manufacturers specifications, is usually
based on a rolling resistance of 110 lb per ton, any rolling resistance in excess of this amount
should be applied to the weight of the tractor. The entire rolling resistance on the towed load
should be used.

In order to provide a reasonable factor of safety, not more than 85 percent of the rated drawbar
pull of a tractor should be used in determining the gradability of the unit.

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 BULLDOZERS

GENERAL INFORMATION
The term bulldozer may be used in a broad sense to include both a bulldozer and
angledozer. These machines may be further divided, on the basis of their mounting,
into crawler-tractor or wheel-tractor-mounted.

Based on the method of raising and lowering the blade a bulldozer may be classified
as cable-controlled or as hydraulically controlled.

Each type of equipment has placed in the construction industry. For some project
either type will be satisfactory, while for other projects one type will be superior.

Bulldozer are versatile machines on many construction projects, where they may be
used from the start to finish for such operations are:
a. Clearing land of timber and stumps
b. Opening up pilot roads through mountains and rocky terrain
c. Moving earth for haul distances up to approximately 300 ft
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d. Helping load tractor-pulled scrapers
e. Spreading earth fill
f. Backfilling trenches
g. Clearing construction sites of debris
h. Maintaining haul roads
i. Clearing the floors of borrow and quarry pits

Bulldozer are mounted with blades perpendicular to the direction of travel. While
Angledozers are mounted with the blades set at an angle wit the direction of
travel. The former push the earth forward, while the latter push it forward and to
one side. Same blades may be adjusted to permit their use as bulldozers or
angledozer.

The size of a bulldozer is indicated by the length and height of the blade. Plates
may be installed at the ends of a blade to reduce the spillage when a machine is
used for moving earth.

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CABLE CONTROL VERSUS HYDRAULIC CONTROL

There are numerous arguments about the merits of cable control versus
hydraulic control of the raising and lowering of blades. Neither is superior to
the other under all operating conditions.

Among the advantages claimed for the cable control are the following:
a. Simplicity of installation and operation
b. Simplicity of repairing the control
c. Reduction in the danger of damaging a machine, as the blade can move
up and ride over a rigid obstruction, such as a heavy boulder.

Among the advantages claimed for the hydraulic control are the following:
a. Ability to produces a high down pressure on the blade, in addition to its
weight,
to force the blade into the ground
b. Ability to maintain a more precise setting of the position of the blade.

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 Fig. 6-7 Cabled-controlled bulldozer Fig. 6-8 Hydraulic-controlled bulldozer

Fig. 6-9 Crawler-tractor-mounted bulldozer Fig. 6-9 Wheel-tractor-mounted bulldozer

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CRAWLER-MOUNTED VERSUS WHEELEDMOUNTED BULLDOZER
At one time bulldozers were mounted on crawler tractors only. However, with the
development of wheel tractors, bulldozers have been mounted on them also. Each
type of mounting has advantages under certain conditions. For some jobs the
condition are such that either type may be used satisfactorily.

Among the advantages claimed for crawler-mounted bulldozer are the following:

Among the advantages claimed for wheel-mounted bulldozer are the following:

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MOVING EARTH WITH BULLDOZER
Under certain conditions bulldozer are satisfactory machine for moving earth for such jobs
as excavating ponds for stock water, trench silos, and highway cuts, stripping the topsoil
from land or ore deposits, constructing low levees, backfilling trenches, spreading material
on fills, etc. In general, haul distances should be less than 300 ft.

Either a crawler-mounted or a wheel-mounted tractor may be used, a crawler-mounted

machine having an advantage on short hauls with soft or muddy ground, and a wheel-
mounted machine possibly having an advantage on longer hauls and firm ground.

The output of a bulldozer will vary with the condition under which it operates. During the
first passes over a given lane most of the initial earth will spill off the ends of the blade to
form a windrow on each side of the lane. After these windrows have been built up to form
a trench, further end spillage will be reduced or eliminated, with a substantial increase in
output. Steel plates on the ends of a blade will reduce end spillage.

On some jobs two bulldozers, working side by side, with adjacent ends of the blades in
contact, have been used to increase the output as much as 50 percent over the combined
output of two machines working separately. If earth can be pushed downhill, the output of
a machine will be increased substantially because of the advantage of the favorable
grade and the ability to float larger quantities of earth ahead of the machine.

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Figure 6-11 illustrates two bulldozers operating under favorable conditions, namely,
downhill dozing, slot excavation, side-by-side operation, and floating extra earth ahead
of the machine.

Fig. 6-11 Operating two bulldozers side by side.

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THE OUTPUT OF BULLDOZER

The blade of a bulldozer has a theoretical capacity which varies with the class of earth and the
size of the blade. If the capacity of a blade is known, one can determine the approximate
output of a machine by estimating the number of passes it will make in an hour.

Example Estimate the approximate output of a bulldozer for the following conditions:

Material, sandy loam topsoil, weight 2,700 lb per cu yd bm

Swell,25%
Haul distance, 100 ft, over level ground, with bulldozer operating in a slot
Crawler tractor, 72 drawbar hp
Moldboard size, 9 ft 6 in. long, 3 ft 0 in. high
Rated moldboard capacity, 3.6 cu yd loose volume
Net moldboard capacity, 3.6.+ 1.25 = 2.9 cu yd bm
Operating factor, 50-min hr
Probable round-trip time
Pushing, 100 ft @ 1.5 mph = 0.758 min
Returning, 100 ft @ 3.5 mph = 0.324 min
Fixed time, loading and shifting gears = 0.320 min
Total time = 1.402 min
Trip per hr, 50 + 1.402 = 35.7
Output per hr, 35.7 trips @ 2.9 cu yd = 103.4 cu yd bm

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The output given in the example is based on favorable operating conditions which
permit a load equal to the maximum capacity of the dozer. For most projects the load
will be less than the maximum possible capacity. For example, if the earth is ordinary
soil, the load might be reduced to 2.0 cu yd bank measure. With other conditions
remaining the same the output per hour will be
35.7 trips @ 2.0 cu yd = 71.4 cu yd bm

The approximate capacity of a bulldozer blade may be determined from the size of the
load pushed by the blade. Actual measurements of representative loads will give better
results than estimates. For example, if a blade 9 ft 6 in. long by 3 ft 0 in. high is used to
push earth in a slot or trench whose height is about equal to that of the blade, it is
possible to fill the blade to full length and height. Although the shape of the front slope
of the earth will be irregular, assume that it is equivalent to a 2: 1 slope. The size of the
load will be 9 ft 6 in. long, 3 ft 0 in. high, and 6 ft o in. wide. The loose volume will be
9.5 X 3 X 6 / (2 X 27) = 3.2 cu yd

For a swell of 25 percent the net volume will be

3.2 + 1.25 = 2.56 cu yd bm

If the dozing is done without slots, the capacity of the blade will be reduced by
approximately 25 percent. Also, if the earth is so hard that a full load cannot be moved,
the capacity must be reduced accordingly.

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Table 6-4 gives approximate blade capacities and outputs in cubic yards bank measure
for various sizes of blades and tractors. The information given in the table is based on
pushing full loads in slots. It is assumed that the tractors will push the loads forward in
first gear, then return for another load in reverse gear. It is assumed that the tractors
will operate 50 min per hr. For other job conditions the outputs given in the table must
be modified.

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 CLEARING LAND

LAND CLEARING OPERATIONS

Clearing land may be divided into several operations, depending on the type of vegetation,
the condition of the soil and topography, the amount of clearing required, and the purpose for
which the clearing is done, as listed below.

1. Complete removal of all trees and stumps, including roots.

2. Removing all vegetation above the surface of the ground only, leaving stumps and
roots in the ground.
3. Disposing of vegetation by stacking and burning it.
4. Knocking all vegetation down then chopping or crushing it to or into the surface of the
ground, or burning it later.

TYPES OF EQUIPMENT USED

Several types of equipment are used for clearing land, with varying degrees of success.
Included are the following:

1. Tractor-mounted bulldozers.
2. Tractor-mounted special blades.
3. Tractor-mounted rakes.
4. Tractor-pulled chains and steel cables.
5. Special machines with pusher bars, and drum-type wheels equipped with blades to
chop the vegetation as the machine passes over it.

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Tractor-mounted Bulldozers

Whereas bulldozers were used extensively during the past to clear land, they are now being
replaced by special blades mounted on tractors. There are at least two valid objections to the
use of bulldozers. Prior to felling large trees they must excavate earth from around the trees
and cut the main roots, which leave objectionable holes in the ground, and require much
time. Also, when stacking the felled trees and other vegetation they transport considerable
earth to the piles, which makes burning more difficult. the felled trees and other vegetation
they transport considerable earth to the piles, which makes burning more difficult.

Fig. 6-12 Land-clearing blade piercing tree with stinger. (Rome Plow Company.)

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Tractor-mounted Special Blades
Two types of special blades are used to fell trees; both are mounted on the front ends of
tractors. One is a single-angle blade with a projecting stinger on the lead side, extending
ahead of the blade, so that it may be forced into and through a tree to split and weaken
it. Thus, if a tree is too large to be felled in one pass, the trunk may be split and removed
in parts. Also, the tractor may make a pass around a tree with the stinger penetrating the
ground to cut the main horizontal roots of the tree. Figure 6-12 shows this blade in use.
It may be used to remove stumps and to stack material for burning.

Another type of special blade is a V blade, with a protruding stinger at its lead point, as
illustrated in Fig. 6-13. The sole effect of the blade permits it to slide along the surface of
the ground, thereby cutting vegetation flush with the surface. However, it can be lowered
below the surface to remove stumps. Also, the blade may be raised to permit the stinger
to pierce a tree above the surface of the ground.

Tractor-mounted Rakes
Figure 6-15 illustrates a tractor-mounted rake which can be used to grub and pile trees,
boulders, and similar materials without transporting excessive quantities of soil. Granular
material, such as sand and gravel, flows between the teeth readily. However, plastic
material may tend to combine with vegetation and clog the spaces between the teeth.
This can be an effective tool when stacking vegetation in piles for burning.

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Fig.613 Tractor-mounted V blade Fig.6.14 Tractor-mounted V blade splitting a large tree.
for clearing land. (Fleco Corp.) (Fleco Corp.)

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Tractor-pulled Chains and Cables

Figure 6-16 illustrates a heavy chain pulled by two tractors that is effective in felling
certain types of trees in certain soils. The chain may be used with one or more attached
heavy steel balls, several feet in diameter, located in the middle half to keep the chain
slightly above the surface of the ground. A wire rope may be used instead of a chain.
Because this method usually will not remove small trees and other vegetation, it may be
necessary to resort to secondary clearing following the use of a chain, depending on the
degree of clearing required.

Fig.6-15 Tractor-mounted land-clearing rake. Fig.6-16 Tractor-pulled chain used to clear

(Fleco Corp) land. (Caterpillar Tractor Company.)

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Special Machines
Figure 6-17 illustrates a type of machine that has been used to fell trees and other
vegetation, and to chop or shred the material to such a degree that it may be left where
it is felled, or it maybe disposed of by stockpiling and burning.

BRUSH DISPOSAL
When brush is to be disposed of by burning, it should be piled in stacks and windrows,
with a minimum amount of dirt included. Shaking the rake while it is moving the brush
will help remove the dirt.

Because burning is usually necessary while the brush contains its natural moisture, it
may be necessary to provide a continuous external source of fuel and heat to burn the
material. The burner illustrated in Fig. 6-18, which consists of a gasoline-driven pump
and a propeller, is capable of maintaining a fire even under adverse conditions. The unit
blows atomized liquid fuel into the burning stack of material. capable of maintaining a fire
even under adverse conditions. The unit blows atomized liquid fuel into the burning stack
of material.

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Fig. 6-18 Burning brush with forced draft and fuel oil.
(Fleco Corp.)

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PRODUCTION RATES

As previously stated, the rate of clearing land will depend on several variables, including,
but not limited to, the following: (1) density of vegetation, (2) sizes and kinds of trees, (3)
kind of soil, (4) topography, (5) rainfall, (6) types of equipment used, (7) skill of
equipment operators, and (8) requirements of the specifications governing the project.

Table 6-5 Representative times in minutes for cutting trees with tracter-meuntee blades

*The times listed are for cutting trees flush with the surface of the ground. If itis
necessary to remove the stumps, the times should be increased by 50 percent.

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Formula (6-2) may be used as a guide in estimating the required time to fell trees only,
using a shear-type cutting blade illustrated in Fig. 6-12, mounted on a crawler tractor of
the size indicated in Table 6-5 [1]. Prior to preparing an estimate, the estimator should
visit the project to be cleared in order to obtain information needed to evaluate the
variable factors in the formula. With this information reasonably applicable values can be
assigned to the factors listed in Table 6-5. Thus we have

T = B + M1N1 + M2N2+ M3N3 + M4N4 + DF (6-2)

where
T = time per acre, min
B = base time required for a tractor to cover an acre with no trees requiring splitting
or
individual treatment, min
M = time required per tree in each diameter range, min
N = number of trees per acre in each diameter range obtained from a field survey
D = sum of diameter in feet of all trees per acre, if any, larger than 6 ft in diameter at
ground level
F = time required per foot of diameter to fell trees larger than 6 ft in diameter, min
Formula (6-2) may also be used to estimate the time required to stack felled trees into
windrows spaced approximately 200 ft apart, by letting M1, M2, etc., represent the time
required to move a tree into a windrow. Table 6-6 gives representative values for the
time required to pile trees.
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Table 6-6 Representative times in minutes for stacking trees with tractor-mounted blades

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