Mirpur University Of Science and Technology

Submitted By: Saeed Azam, Arslan Asghar,

Faisal Zahoor

Roll No: 04, 01, 31

Class: BS-SE (3rd)Evening

Submitted To: MADAM SEHREEN

Course Title: Computer Architecture

 Acknowledgement
Every praise is to ALLAH Almighty the kind and
merciful who created the whole universe for us. This is
all due to his blessing and miracle that we have
successfully crossed another milestone of our
academic career and completed this study well in time
with great success.
We wish to acknowledge the many people who have
helped to make this report possible, both directly and
indirectly.
The people who have helped in over coming all obstacles,
large and small, deserve my thanks.
We would like to express deep gratitude toward our
teacher and friends. We owe my deepest gratitude and
immense debt to our families who always prayers for
our success and their very kind, moral and financial
support for execution of our study.
 Summary Abstract
In this report we discuss about the History of computer
memory and give brief explanation about memory of
computer.
We choose this problem to improve our knowledge about
computer memory. This research helps us to know the
use of memory in computer.
We also discuss the researches made in field of computer
memory to make computer more efficient, helpful and
accurate.
This report is important for those person who are new in the
computer field and also for those who has interest in
computer memory. This report helps them to understands
the importance of computer memory.
 Table Of Contents:
Chapter # 1
1.1 History of computer Memory………………………………………………………2
1.2 Punched Card ………………………………………………………………………3
1.3 Drum Memory……………………………………………………………………...4
1.4 Konard Zuse………………………………………………………………………..5
1.5 Atanasoff -Berry……………………………………………………………………6
1.6 Jay Forester…………………………………………………………………………7
1.7 DRAM……………………………………………………………………………...8
1.8 Apple Computer……………………………………………………………………9
Chapter # 2
2.1 Computer Storage…………………………………………………………………10
2.2 Primary Memory…………………………………………………………………..11
2.3 Main Memory Capacity……………………………………………………………12
2.4 Secondary Storage………………………………………………………………….13
2.5 ROM………………………………………………………………………………..14
2.6 PROM………………………………………………………………………………15
2.7 EPROM…………………………………………………………………………….16
2.8 EEPROM…………………………………………………………………………..17
2.9 Mask ROM…………………………………………………………………………18
Chapter # 3
3.1 RAM…………………………………………………………………………………19
3.2 SRAM………………………………………………………………………………..20
3.3 DRAM………………………………………………………………………………..21
3.4 FPM…………………………………………………………………………………..22
3.5 EDO…………………………………………………………………………………..23
3.6 ECC…………………………………………………………………………………..24
3.7 SDRAM………………………………………………………………………………25
3.8 Hybrid Memory……………………………………………………………………….26
3.9 NVRAM………………………………………………………………………………27
3.10 Flash Memory……………………………………………………………………….28
Chapter # 4
4.1 CD-ROM……………………………………………………………………………29
4.2 WROM Disk………………………………………………………………………...30
4.3 Floppy Disk………………………………………………………………………….31
4.4 Hard Disk…………………………………………………………………………….32
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………….33
Recommendation…………………………………………………………………………34
Reference………………………………………………………………………………....35
 Executive Summary
The main objective of making this report is to gain
knowledge about computer memory. Its use and
importance in computer.
The background reason that prompts us to gain the
knowledge about computer memory is our degree
program of software engineering.
The source we use to collect data are the books on
computer of different author like ‘Introduction to
computers’ (sixth edition) by ‘Peter Norton’ and
‘Computer Fundamentals’(3rd edition) by ‘Pradeep
K.Sinha and priti Sinha’.
The main thing that we find in our research is that the
computer memory took central position in solution of
our problems and storing data.
 Introduction
Necessity is the mother of invention. The saying holds
true for computer memory also because computer
memories were invented because of man’s search
for storing large amount of data.
Memory is the lifeblood of many computers
manufactured today. The Operating Systems and
other applications created to enhance user
experience and provide instant access to word
processing and Internet browsers require increasing
amounts of memory to create the user experience to
which many of us are accustomed.
 Chapter #1
1.1 History Of Computer
Memory:
The history of computer memory is as old as
computer. The first computers used punch
cards for input and had very limited
memory for processing. The average
memory in the first computers was
between three and forty five kilobits.
Memory was used to store data in the
processing of linear equations, and the
results were then printed in binary. When
compared to the computers available
today, the first computers do not seem
very technologically advanced, but at the
time they were created these first
computers were engineering masterpieces.
Many of the concepts created when
building early computers are still in use in
modern computing technology.
 1.2 Punched Card:
In 1834, Charles Babbage begins build his
"Analytical Engine", precursor to the computer.
It uses read-only memory in the form of punch
cards.
A punched card is a piece of stiff paper that
contains digital information represented by the
presence or absence of holes in predefined
positions. Now almost an obsolete recording
medium, punched cards were widely used
throughout the 19th century for controlling
textile looms and in the late 19th and early 20th
century for operating fairground organs and
related instruments. They were used through the
20th century in unit record machines for input,
processing, and data storage. Early digital
computers used punched cards, often prepared
using keypunch machines, as the primary
medium for input of both computer programs
and data. Some voting machines use punched
cards.
 1.3 Drum Memory:
Drum memory is a magnetic data storage device and was
an early form of computer memory widely used in the
1950s and into the 1960s, invented by Gustav
Tauschek in 1932 in Austria. For many machines, a
drum formed the main working memory of the
machine, with data and programs being loaded on to
or off the drum using media such as paper tape or
punched cards. Drums were so commonly used for
the main working memory that these computers were
often referred to as drum machines. Drums were later
replaced as the main working memory by memory
such as core memory and a variety of other systems
which were faster as they had no moving parts, and
which lasted until semiconductor memory entered the
scene. A drum is a large metal cylinder that is coated
on the outside surface with a ferromagnetic recording
material. It could be considered the precursor to the
hard disk platter, but in the form of a drum rather than
a flat disk. A row of read-write heads runs along the
long axis of the drum, one for each track.
1.4 Konard Zuse:
In 1936,Konrad Zuse applies for a
patent for his mechanical memory
to be used in his computer. This
computer memory is based on
sliding metal parts.
Konrad Zuse completed the Z3 in
1941. This was the world's first
electronic, fully programmable
digital computer based on a binary
floating-point number and
switching system. Zuse used old
movie film to store his programs
and data for the Z3, instead of using
paper tape or punched cards.
1.5 John Atanasoff-Berry:
The Atanasoff-Berry Computer has 60 50-
bit words of memory in the form of
capacitors mounted on two revolving
drums. For secondary memory it uses
punch cards.
The key ideas employed in the ABC
included binary math and Boolean logic
to solve up to 29 simultaneous linear
equations. The ABC had no central
processing unit (CPU), but was designed
as an electronic device using vacuum
tubes for digital computation. It also
used separate regenerative capacitor
memory that operated by a process still
used today in DRAM memory.
1.6 Jay Forester:
Jay Forrester conceives the idea of
magnetic core memory as it is to
become commonly used, with a grid of
wires used to address the cores. The first
practical form manifests in 1952-53 and
renders obsolete previous types of
computer memory.
jay Forrester invented core memory in 1949
that became the dominant form of
computer memory in the 1950s, and
remained in use until the late 1970s.
"A magnetic material can have its
magnetization altered by an electric
field. If the field isn't strong enough, the
magnetism is unchanged. This principle
makes it possible to change a single
piece of magnetic material -- a small
doughnut called a core -- wired into a
grid, by passing half the current needed
to change it through two wires that only
intersect at that core."
1.7 DRAM:
In 1970, Dr. Robert H. Dennardd
invented the first DRAM (Dynamic
Random Access Memory) chip (1K
bit PMOS dynamic RAM ICs), and
by 1972 it was the best selling
semiconductor memory chip in the
world, defeating magnetic core type
memory.  The first commercially
available computer using the 1103
was the HP 9800 series.
DRAM needs to be refreshed thousands
of times per second.
1.8 Apple Computer:

On April Fool's Day, 1976, Steve

Wozniak and Steve Jobs released
the Apple I computer and started
Apple Computers. The Apple I
was the first single circuit board
computer. It came with a video
interface, 8k of RAM and a
keyboard. The system
incorporated some economical
components, including the 6502
processor (only $25 dollars -
designed by Rockwell and
produced by MOS
Technologies) and dynamic
RAM.
 Chapter #2
2.1 Computer Storage:
The data and instructions, which are entered into the computer system
through input units have to be stored inside the computer, before the
actual processing starts. similarly, the results produced by the
computer after processing ,must also be kept somewhere inside the
computer system, before being passed on to the output units.
Moreover, the intermediate results produced by the computer, must also
be preserved for ongoing processing. The storage unit of a computer
system is designed to cater to all these needs. It space for storing
data and instructions, space for intermediate results and space for
final results.
In short the specific functions of the storage unit are to hold (store):
 The data and instructions required for processing (received from
input devices).
 Intermediate results of processing.
 Final results of processing before these results are released to an
output device.
The storage unit of all computers is comprised of the following two
types of storage.
 2.2 Primary Memory:
The primary storage is also known as main memory. it is
used to hold pieces of program instruction and data,
intermediate results of processing and recently
produced results of processing ,of the jobs, which the
computer system is currently working on. These pieces
of information are represented electronically in the
main memory chip's circuitry, and while it remains in
the main memory, the central processing unit can
access it directly at a very fast speed. however the
primary storage can hold information only while the
computer system is on. As soon as the computer
system is switched off or reset , the information held in
the primary storage disappears.
Moreover, the primary storage normally has limited
storage capacity, because it is very expensive .The
primary storage of modern computer systems is made
up of semiconductor devices.
2.3 Main Memory Capacity:
The main memory capacity of large computer systems is
normally more than that of small systems. This capacity is
defined in term of the number of bytes a computer system
can store.
Memory capacity of a computer system is normally stated in
term of kilobytes (KB),which is equal to 1024(210) bytes of
storage or in term of megabytes (MB), which is equal to
1,048,576(220) bytes of storage or in term of gigabytes (GB)
which is equal to 1,073,741,824(230) bytes of storage. Notice
that 1KB is about 103 bytes, 1MB is about 106 bytes and 1
GB is about 109 bytes, hence the crigin of the prefix kilo
(thousand), mega (million) and giga (billion).
1Byte = 8 Bits
1024 Bytes = 1 Kilo Bytes (KB)
1024 KB = 1 Mega Bytes (MB)
1024 MB = 1 Giga Bytes (GB)
1024 GB = 1 Tera Bytes (TB)
 2.4 Secondary Storage:
The secondary storage is also known as
auxiliary storage. it is used to take care of
the limitation of the primary storage. that
is, it is used to supplement the limited
storage capacity and the volatile
characteristic of primary storage. This is
because secondary storage is much
cheaper than primary storage and it can
retain information even when the
computer system is switched off or reset.
The secondary storage is normally used to
hold the program instructions, data and
information of those jobs, on which the
computer system is not working on
currently, but needs to hold them for
processing later. The most commonly
used secondary storage medium is the
magnetic disk.
2.5 ROM (Read Only Memory):
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. It is non-
volatile memory chip , in which data is stored
permanently and cannot be altered by the
programmer. In fact storing data permanently
into this kind of memory is called “burning in
the data", because data in such memory is
stored by using fuse links. Once a fuse link is
burnt it is permanent. The data stored in ROM
chip can only be read and used-they cannot be
changed. This is the reason why it is called
read-only memory. since ROM chips are non-
volatile , the data stored inside a ROM are not
lost, when the power supply is switched off,
unlike the case of a volatile RAM chip. ROMs
are also known as field stores, permanent
stores. ROMs are used to store critical program
such as the program that boots the computer.
There are various types of ROM some are
explained ahead.
2.6 PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory):

PROM stands for Programmable Read

Only Memory. PROM is a memory
chip on which data can be written
only once. Once a program has
been written onto a PROM, it
remains their for ever. Unlike
RAM, PROM retains their
contents. when the computer is
even turned off. The difference
between PROM and ROM is that, a
PROM is programmed during the
manufacturing process. To write
data onto a PROM chip you need a
special device called a PROM
programmer or PROM Burner. The
process of programming a PROM
is some time called Burning
PROM.
2.7 EPROM (Erasable programmable ROM)
EPROM stands for Erasable programmable Read Only
Memory. Once information is stored in a ROM chip
or a PROM chip , it cannot be altered. However,
there is another type of memory chip, called
EPROM, which overcomes this problem. As the
name implies, it is possible to erase information
stored in an EPROM chip and the chip can be
reprogrammed to store new information. EPROMs
are often used by R&D personnel (experimenters),
who frequently change the micro programs to test the
efficiency of the computer system with new
programs. EPROMs are also useful in case of those
application where one may like to store a program in
a ROM, which would normally not change but under
some unforeseen conditions one may like to alter it.
When an EPROM is in use information stored in it
can only be “read” and the information remains in the
chip until it is erased.
The information stored in EPROM is erased by exposing
the chip for some time to ultraviolet light . It is also
known as Ultra Violet EPROM (UVEPROM). once a
program has been erased it can be reprogrammed.
2.8 EEPROM (Electrical Erasable PROM):
It stands for Electrical Erasable
Programmable Read Only Memory. It
is non-volatile memory. It is writable.
It is fast to read but slow to erase and
write. EEPROM is a special type of
PROM , that can be erased by
exposing it to an Electrical charge.
Like other types of PROM, EEPROM
retains contents even when the power
is turned off. EEPROM is similar to
flash memory some time called flash
EEPROM. The major difference is
that EEPROM required data to be
written or erased one byte at a time,
where flash memory allows data to be
written or erased in a blocks. This
makes flash memory faster.
2.9 Mask ROM:

Mask ROM is type of Read Only

Memory whose contents are
programmed by the integrated
circuit manufacture rather than a
user. The terminology mask
come from ICs fabrication where
the region of the chip is masked
off.
ROM manufactures usually impose a
mask charge of several thousand
dollars that is why mask ROMs
are normally use today only in
high volume application. For low
level volume application there
are more cost effective choices.
 CHAPTER # 3
3.1 RAM (Random Access Memory):
RAM stands for Random Access Memory. Data can be
read or written to RAM without any special voltage or
light source. A data word in the memory is typically
read or written one word at a time after selecting the
address of it . However the data stored in the RAM is
lost if the power to the IC chip is disconnected. This
mean that RAM is volatile memory. RAM is usually
used for primary storage in computer to hold active
information such as data and programs.
This memory consists of some integrated circuit either on
the motherboard or on a small circuit board attached
to the motherboard. A computer's motherboard is
designed in a manner that its memory capacity can be
easily enhanced by adding more memory chips.
Hence if you decide to have more memory than your
computer currently has, you can plug them in the
empty memory slots on the motherboard. The
additional RAM chips, which plug into special
sockets on the motherboard, are also known as single
in-line modules (SIMMs).
There are two types of RAM which are explained ahead.
3.2 SRAM (Static Random Access Memory):
SRAM stands for static Random
Access Memory. Static Random
Access Memory (SRAM) is a type
of semiconductor memory where
the word static indicates that,
unlike dynamic RAM (DRAM), it
does not need to be periodically
refreshed. SRAM exhibits data
remanence but is still volatile in
the conventional sense that data is
eventually lost when the memory
is not powered. The information
remains stored as long as the
power is applied to the chip.
Unless some location is written
again.
3.3 DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory):

DRAM stands for Dynamic Random Access

Memory. Dynamic random access memory
(DRAM) is a type of random access memory
that stores each bit of data in a separate
capacitor within an integrated circuit.The
data stored at each location must be
periodically refreshed by reading it and
writing it back again or otherwise it
disappeared.
The advantage of DRAM is its structural
simplicity. only one transistor and a
capacitor are required per bit, compared to
six transistors in SRAM. This allows DRAM
to reach very high density. Unlike flash
memory, it is volatile memory . since it loses
its data when the power supply is removed.
The transistors and capacitors used are
extremely small—millions can fit on a single
memory chip.
DRAM is the cheapest to build.Newer and faster
Dynamic RAM types are develop
continously . Currently there are four types
of DRAM.
3.4 FPM (Fast Page Mode):
FPM stands for Fast Page Mode. It
is slightly faster than
conventional DRAM. While
standard DRAM requires that a
row and column be sent for
each access. FPM works by
sending the row address just
once for many accesses to
memory in location near each
other improving access time.
FPM memory itself is an
improved version of its
predecessor page mode
memory, which is very rarely
seen now. Despite its name
(Fast Page Mode). FPM is
actually the slowest memory
technology used in modern PCs.
3.5 EDO (Extended Data Output):
EDO stands for Extended Data Output.
sometime it is also called hyper
page mode DRAM. It is slightly
faster than FPM memory due to
another evolutionary tweak in how
the memory access works. In
simplified term EDO memory has
had its timing circuit modified . So
one access to the memory can begin
before the last one has finished. It is
therefore slightly faster than FPM
memory.
EDO memory costs the same amount to
manufacture as FPM and due to it
prominence in the market now is
cheapest than FPM despite being
newer and faster.
3.6 ECC (Error Correcting Code):

ECC stands for Error correcting

code. It is memory that is able
to detect and correct some
SDRAM errors without user
intervention. ECC SDRAM
replaced parity memory which
could only detect but do not
correct SDRAM error. Most
ECC SDRAM can correct
single bit errors and detect but
not correct larger errors. Thus
errors greater in size than one
bit will still crash computer.
3.7 SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM):
SDRAM stands for Synchronous DRAM. A
relatively new and different kind of RAM,
Synchronous DRAM differs from earlier types
in that it does not run a Synchronous to the
system clock the way older, conventional types
of memory do. SDRAM is tied to the system
clock and is designed to be able to read or
write from memory in burst mode at 1 clock
per access at memory bus speed up to 100
MHz or even higher.
SDRAM is rapidly becoming the new memory
standard for modern PCs .The reason is that it
is Synchronized design permits support for the
much higher bus speed that have started to
enter the market.
As 100 MHz bus system PCs become
mainstream ,SDRAM will largely replace
older technologies since it is designed to work
at these higher operating speeds and
conventional asynchronous DRAM is not.
3.8 Hybrid Memory:
A hybrid drive is a type of a large
buffer computer hard disk
drive. It is different from
standard hard drive in that it
uses a smaller solid state
drive (SSD) as a cache. The
cache typically uses non-
volatile RAM. The flash
memory buffer can speed up
replaced reads, a RAM buffer
speeds both reads and writes
but must be written to backup
storage when power is lost.
The various types of hybrid
memory are:
3.9 NVRAM:
NVRAM stands for Non-Volatile Random
Access Memory. It is the general name used
to describe any type of Random Access
Memory which does not lose its information
when power is turned off. This is in contrast
to the most common forms of Random
Access Memory. DRAM and SRAM which
both require continual power in order to
maintain their data.
NVRAM is a group of the more general class of
non-volatile memory types, the difference
being that NVRAM devices offer Random
Access unlike hard disk.
The best known form of NVRAM memory is
flash memory. Some drawbacks to flash
memory include the requirement to write it
in larger blocks than many computers can
automatically address and the relatively
limited longevity of flash memory due to its
finite number of write erase cycles.
3.10 Flash Memory:
Flash Memory is a non-volatile computer storage
that can be electrically erased and
reprogrammed. It is a technology that is
primarily used in memory cards and USB flash
drivers for general storage and transfer of data
between computers and other digital products.
It is a specific type of EEPROM that is erased
and programmed in large blocks, in early flash
the entire chip had to be erased at once. Flash
memory costs far less than byte programmable
EEPROM and therefore has become the
dominant technology wherever a significant
amount of non-volatile, solid state storage is
need.
Since flash memory is non-volatile , no power is
needed to maintain the information stored in
the chip. In addition flash memory offers fast
read access time and better kinetic shock
resistance than hard disk.
The most common secondary storage devices are:
 CHAPTER # 4
4.1 CD-ROM:

CD-ROM stands for Compact Disk-

Read Only Memory. It is a spin-off
music CD technology and works
much like the music CDs used in
music system. In fact, if you have a
soundboard and speakers connected
to your computer, you can play music
CDs with your computer.
The CD-ROM disk is a shiny, silver
color metal disk 12cm diameter. It
has a storage capacity of about 650
Megabytes. It is so called,because of
its enormous storage capacity on a
compact-size disk, and because it is a
read-only storage medium. That is,
these disks come pre-recorded and
the information stored on them
cannot be altered.
4.2 WORM Disk:
WORM stands for Write-Once, read many.
WORM disks allow the users to create
their own CD-ROM disks by using a
CD-recordable (CD-R) drive, which can
be attached to a computer as a regular
peripheral device. WORM disks , which
look like standard CD-ROM disks, are
purchased blank and encoded using a
CD-R drive. The information recorded
on a WORM disk by a CD-R drive can
be read by ordinary CD-ROM drive. As
the name implies, data can be written
only once on WORM disk but can be
read many times. That is, as with a CD-
ROM once data has been etched on to the
surface of a WORM disk, it becomes
permanent, which can be read but never
altered.
4.3 Floppy Disks:
A floppy disk is a round, flat piece of
flexible plastic, coated with magnetic
oxide. It is encased in a square plastic
or vinyl cover. The jacket gives
handling protection to the disk surface.
Moreover it has a special liner, which
provides a wiping action to remove
dust particles, which are harmful for
the disk surface and the read/write
head. Floppy disks are so called
because they are made of flexible
plastic plates, which can bend, not
hard plates.
They are also known as floppies or
diskettes. They were introduced by
IBM in 1972, and are now being
produced in various sizes and
capacities by many manufacturers.
4.4 Hard Disk:
A hard disk is a sealed unit that a PC
uses for non-volatile data storage.
It is secondary storage device. It is
also called permanent storage
device. It is main location where
all data is stored. Data can be
access directly. Data recording
time is faster in this category of
computer memory.
Hard disk consist on thin, circular
metal plate/platter coated on both
side with magnetic oxide. more
than one plates/platters are arrange
vertically after one and other.
Most hard disk have 2-4 platters.
A typical platters stores data on both
sides and has 80 tracks on each
side. Each track has sectors. A
sector is capable of holding 512
bytes of data.
 References:

All the references and source from where data gathered for this report are
mentioned herewith for your kind concern.

Books

1.Introduction to Computer 6th edition

By PETER NORTON
2.Computer Fundamentals 3rd Edition
By Pradeep K.Sinha and Priti Sinha
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