Human Anatomy and Physiology II: Biology 1414 Unit 1 The Urinary System

Human Anatomy and Physiology
II
Biology 1414
Unit 1
The Urinary System
Objective 1
List the functions of the urinary

system and explain how they
contribute to homeostasis.
Unit 1 - Objective 1
Functions of the Urinary System
• Filtration of the blood

– Occurs in the glomerulus of the kidney
nephron
– Contributes to homeostasis by
removing toxins or waste
• Reabsorption of vital nutrients, ions

and water
– Occurs in most parts of the kidney
nephron
conserving important materials
• Secretion of excess materials

– Assists filtration in removing material
from the blood
preventing a build-up of certain materials
in the body such as drugs, waste,etc.
• Activation of Vitamin D
– Vitamin D made in the skin is converted
to Vitamin D3 by the kidney
– Active Vitamin D (D3) assists
homeostasis by increasing calcium
absorption from the digestive tract
• Release of Erythropoietin by the

kidney
– Erythropoietin stimulates new RBC
production
– New RBC’s assist homeostasis by
insuring adequate Oxygen and Carbon
Dioxide transport
• Release of Renin by the kidney

– Renin stimulates the formation of a
powerful vasoconstrictor called
Angiotensin II
– Angiotensin II assists homeostasis by
causing vasoconstriction which increases
blood pressure
• Release of Prostaglandins
– Prostaglandins dilate kidney blood
vessels
– Dilated blood vessels contribute to
homeostasis by maintaining blood flow
in the kidneys
• Secretion of H (+1) and reabsorption

of HCO3 (-1)
– Eliminates excess hydrogen ions and
conserves buffer material such as
bicarbonate
– Contributes to homeostasis by controlling
acid/base conditions in body fluids
Objective 2
Given a diagram of the Urinary

System, you will recognize and
label the following parts: kidney,
ureters, bladder, urethra, internal
and external sphincters.
Urinary System
Renal artery
Renal Vein
Kidney
Ureter
For Urinary Bladder

sphincters,
see next slide
Urinary System
Male Sphincters Female Sphincters
Internal urethral
External
sphincterUrethral
Sphincter
Objective 3
Given a diagram of the kidney you

will label and give the functions
of the following structures: renal
vein, renal artery, capsule, cortex,
medulla, pyramids, renal papilla,
calyx, pelvis, ureter, renal column
and nephron
Kidney Diagram
Medulla
Papilla
Calyx
Pyramid Renal Vein
Cortex Renal Artery
Nephron Pelvis
Column
Capsule
Ureter
Functions of Kidney Structures
Examine the kidney structures
in the following slides and note
the particular functions.
• The Renal Artery

– Transports oxygenated blood from the
heart and aorta to the kidney for
filtration
• Renal Vein
– Transports filtered and deoxygenated
blood from the kidney to the posterior
vena cava and then the heart
• Renal Column
– A passageway located between the renal
pyramids found in the medulla and used
as a space for blood vessels
• Nephron
– The physiological unit of the kidney used
for filtration of blood and reabsorption
and secretion of materials
• Capsule
– The outer membrane that encloses,
supports and protects the kidney
• Cortex
– The outer layer of the kidney that contains
most of the nephron; main site for
filtration, reabsorption and secretion
• Medulla
– inner core of the kidney that contains the
pyramids, columns, papillae, calyces, pelvis
and parts of the nephron not located in the
cortex; used for salt, water and urea
absorption
• Renal Pyramids
– Triangular shaped units in the medulla that
house the loops of Henle and collecting
ducts of the nephron; site for the counter-
current system that concentrates salt and
conserves water and urea
• Renal Papilla
– The tip of the renal pyramid that releases
urine into a calyx
• Calyx
– A collecting sac surrounding the renal
papilla that transports urine from the
papilla to the renal pelvis
• Renal Pelvis
– Collects urine from all of the calyces in
the kidney
• Ureter
– Transports urine from the renal pelvis to
the bladder
Objective 4
Given a diagram of a Nephron you will
label and give the functions of the
structures: afferent arteriole, efferent
arteriole, glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule,
proximal convoluted tubule, decending limb
and ascending limbs of the loop of Henle,
vasa recta, distal convoluted tubule,
peritubular capillaries and the collecting
duct.
Diagram of Kidney Nephron
Efferent arteriole Proximal convoluted

tubule
Afferent arteriole Glomerulus
Bowman’s Peritubular capillaries

capsule
Distal convoluted
tubule
Vasa recta
Collecting Decending limb of loop of

duct Henle
Ascending limb of loop of

Henle
Functions of Nephron Structures
• AfferentArteriole
– Transports arterial blood to the
glomerulus for filtration
• Efferent Arteriole
– Transports filtered blood from the
glomerulus , through the peritubular
capillaries and the vasa recta, and to the
kidney venous system
• Glomerulus
– The site for blood filtration
– operates as a nonspecific filter; in that, it
will remove both useful and non-useful
material
– the product of the glomerulus is called
filtrate
• Bowman’s Capsule
– A sac that encloses Bowman’s Capsule and
transfers filtrate from the glomerulus to
the Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)
• Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)
– A thick, constantly actively segment of the
nephron that reabsorbs most of the useful
substances of the filtrate: sodium (65%),
water (65%), bicarbonate (90%), chloride
(50%), glucose (nearly 100%!), etc.
– The primary site for secretion (elimination)
of drugs, waste and hydrogen ions
• Decending Limb of the Loop of Henle
– A part of the counter current multiplier
– freely permeable to water and relatively
impermeable to solutes (salt particles)
– receives filtrate from the PCT, allows water to
be absorbed and sends “salty”filtrate on the the
next segment. “Saves water and passes the
salt”
• Ascending Limb of the Loop of Henle
– a part of the counter current multiplier
– impermeable to water and actively
transports (reabsorbs) salt (NaCl) to the
interstitial fluid of the pyramids in the medulla.
“Saves salt and passes the water.”
– the passing filtrate becomes dilute and the
interstitium becomes hyperosmotic
• Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)
– receives dilute fluid from the ascending limb
of the Loop of Henle
– Variably active portion of the nephron
– When aldosterone hormone is present,
sodium is reabsorbed and potassium is
secreted. Water and chloride follow the
sodium.
• Collecting Duct
– receives fluid from the DCT
– variably active portion of the Nephron
– when antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is present, this
duct will become porous to water. Water from the
collecting duct fluid then moves by osmosis into the
“salty” (hyperosmotic) interstitium of the medulla.
– The last segment to save water for the body
• Peritubular Capillaries
– transport reabsorbed materials from the
PCT and DCT into kidney veins and
eventually back into the general circulation
– help complete the conservation process
(reabsorption) that takes place in the kidney
Objective 5
Identify the parts of the Nephron

responsible for Filtration, Reabsorption
and Secretion, and describe the
Mechanisms underlying each of these
functional processes.
Site of Filtration
• Glomerulus
– the Glomerulus is the site of filtration
– the filtration mechanism is sieve-like and
consists of fenestrated glomerular
capillaries, podocytes and a basement
membrane that allows free passage of water
and solutes smaller than plasma proteins
Location of the Glomerulus
Efferent Afferent
Arteriole Arteriole
Bowman’s
Capsule
Glomerulus
Proximal
Convoluted
Tubule
Glomerular Filtration Mechanism
Podocyte with
Basement
Membrane
Glomerulus
Bowman’s Capsule
Fenestrated Capillary
Objective 6
Describe the Juxtaglomerular Apparatus

and how it maintains renal blood pressure
The Juxtaglomerular Apparatus
• Description
– the juxtaglomerular apparatus consists of
specialized macula densa cells that develop
in the distal convoluted tubule (DCT) and
specialized granular juxtaglomerular (JG)
cells that develop mainly in the afferent
arteriole. See following diagram.
Bowman’s Capsule
Efferent Arteriole
DCT
PCT
Macula
Densa Cells
Granular Juxtaglomerular (JG)
Cells Afferent Arteriole
• Used in maintaining blood pressure
– if the blood pressure drops, the granular JG
cells release renin
– renin converts the blood protein
angiotensinogen into angiotensin I which
converts to angiotensin II
– angiotensin II acts as a vasoconstrictor to raise
blood pressure. Continued on next slide.
continued:
– Angiotensin II also stimulates the release of
aldosterone hormone from the adrenal
cortex
– aldosterone stimulates the DCT to reabsorb
salt (NaCl). Continued on next slide.
continued:
– salt reabsorption attracts water to the blood
by osmosis and raises blood volume, as
well as, contributing to the increase in
blood pressure. Continued on next slide.
continued:
– the macula densa cells monitor the salt
content of the blood
– if the blood salt content gets too high, the
macula densa cells begin to inhibit the
granular cells and suppress renin release
continued:
– suppression of renin acts as a negative
feedback mechanism to prevent further
increases in angiotensin II, Aldosterone and
blood pressure
• Use in maintaining blood pressure
continued:
– eventually the blood pressure will come back
down
– the “push/pull” action of the granular cells and
macula densa cells provide an effective
mechanism for regulating blood pressure in
the kidney
Objective 7
Discuss the functioning of the counter

current mechanism through which the
kidneys excrete a concentrated urine by
indicating the role of the following: sodium
chloride, posterior pituitary, ADH,
hypothalamus, collecting duct, active
transport, osmosis, interstitial fluid, vasa
recta, diffusion, loop of Henle and urea
The Counter Current Mechanism
Compare to the Nephron and recall parts
? ?
Were you able to locate the decending limb

of the Loop of Henle, the ascending limb
of the Loop of Henle, the collecting duct
and the vasa recta in the previous diagram?
Be able to explain these components in
your discussion of this mechanism.
We will begin our discussion of the
counter current mechanism with the
ascending limb of the loop of Henle
(ALLH). This portion of the nephron
reabsorbs chloride by active transport. As
chloride moves from the filtrate it pulls
along sodium into the interstitium of the
medulla. The medulla then becomes very
hyperosmotic
As salt (NaCl) leaves the ALLH, the

osmolarity of the fluid decreases from 1,200
to 100 milliosmoles/L (mOSM/L). This
happens because the ALLH is impermeable
to water. The net effect of this activity is to
remove salt from the kidney filtrate and
transfer it into the medulla where it can be
saved for use by the body.
The accumulated salt in the interstitium of

the medulla acts as an osmotic force which
can be used to “draw” and conserve water
from other parts of the nephron: the
decending limb of the Loop of Henle
(DLLH) and the collecting duct. The DLLH
is a thin passive segment that is permeable
to water, but, impermeable to salt.
As the DLLH gives up water to the

medullary interstitium, the osmolarity of the
fluid changes from 300 to 1,200 mOSM/L.
The net effect of this process is to conserve
water for the body. Thus, the loop of Henle
actively transfers salt back into the kidney
which can be used to save water
osmotically. A remarkable process!
The hyperosmotic interstitium of the
medulla will also “pull” and conserve water
from the collecting duct, but, on a variable
basis depending on the availibility of ADH.
As water moves from the collecting duct,
urea will follow. Thus, as water is
conserved at this level, a certain amount of
urea is also conserved. The urea contributes
to the high osmolarity of the medulla
The availibility of Antidiurectic Hormone
(ADH) is determined by dehydration and
thirst. Under these conditions, the
hypothalamus makes extra ADH and
stores it in the posterior pituitary where it
can be released. The increased release of
ADH causes the “water pores” of of the
collecting duct to open and allow water to
move from the urine to the medulla.
As water leaves the collecting duct, the
urine becomes progressively more
concentrate. The osmolarity of the
collecting duct fluid will increase from
about 150-300 to 1,200 mOsm/l. under
these conditions. If ADH is not present,
water is not conserved and is lost as part of
a dilute urine (100 mOsm/l).
The vasa recta is made up of a group of
capillary like vessels and is freely
permeable to salt and water. The vessels of
the vasa recta roughly flow counter to the
loop of Henle and acts as a counter current
exchanger. As blood flows through the vasa
recta it picks up water and leaves behind
salt. Thus, the vasa recta returns conserved
water back to the body and leaves the salt
which maintains the hyperosmotic medulla.
Objective 8
Given the value for two of the following,

you will compute the value for the third:
Amount Filtered, Amount Reabsorbed and
Amount Excreted.
Objective 8
The relationship between the variables of
Objective 8 is as follows:
Amount Excreted = Amount Filtered -
Amount Reabsorbed
This equation signifies that if we take the
difference between the filtration and
reabsorption rate, we can determine how
much of a substance the kidneys eliminate
per unit of time.
Objective 8
If the kidneys filter 16 grams of NaCl per
day and then reabsorb 14 grams of NaCl per
day, then 2 grams of NaCl would be
excreted or eliminated by the kidneys per
day as part of the urine.
Amount Excreted = Amount Filtered - Amount Reabsorbed
2 g NaCl/day = 16 g NaCl/day - 14 g NaCl/day
Objective 8
Examine the following and find the missing
value:
Amount Excreted = Amount Filtered - Amount Reabsorbed
1) ? = 100 g of glucose - 100 g of glucose
2) 100 g of glucose = ? - 300 g of glucose
3) 100 g of glucose = 400 g of glucose - ?
Answers: (1)equals zero; (2) equals 400; (3) equals 300
Objective 9
Given the concentration of a substance in

the plasma and the amount of the substance
excreted in the urine per minute, you will
compute the plasma clearance rate.
Plasma Clearance
Plasma clearance is defined as the amount

of plasma that is cleared or “cleansed” of
a particular substance in one minute. The
kidneys will carry out this clearance
process through the use of filtration,
reabsorption and secretion.
Plasma Clearance
Filtration will directly affect clearance. As
filtration increases, more material will be
removed from the blood plasma.
Reabsorption will indirectly affect
clearance. As reabsorption increases, less
material will be removed from the blood
plasma. Secretion will directly affect
clearance. As secretion increases, more
material will be removed from blood
plasma.
Plasma Clearance
The formula used to calculate plasma
clearance is:
C = V x U/P
C = plasma clearance rate in ml/min
V = urine production rate in ml/min
U = the concentration of a substance in the urine in mg/ml
P = the concentration of a substance in the plasma in mg/ml
As you track the units in the equation, you will notice that mg/ml
cancel out, leaving ml/min.
Plasma Clearance
Let us practice calculating plasma clearance
using the clearance equation. In all your
calculations, assume that the urine
production rate (V) is 2 ml/min. Let’s start
with the substance inulin (not insulin!). If
after a dose of inulin, your urine has 30
mg/ml and your plasma has 0.5 mg/ml of
this substance, what is the inulin clearance
rate? If you got 120ml/min, you are correct!
Plasma Clearance
If you did not get 120ml/min, look at the
following calculation and recheck your
work.
120 ml/min = 2 ml/min x 30 mg/ml/ 0.5 mg/ml
Plasma Clearance
Test your ability to conduct further
calculations by calculating the clearance
rate for the following substances:
Substance Urine concentration Plasma concentration
Urea 7.0 mg/ml 0.2 mg/ml
Glucose 0.0 mg/ml 1.0 mg/ml
Penicillin 298 mg/ml 0.7 mg/ml
Remember that the urine production rate (2ml/min) will be the
same for all of the above calculations. The clearance rate for each
of the above substances will be: Urea = 70 ml/min; Glucose = 0
ml/min; Penicillin = 851 ml/min. Were you able to get the right
answers? If not, go back and restudy the clearance process.
Objective 10
Give the cause and describe the disease

process for the following: renal calculi
(kidney stones); cystitis; gout;
Glomerulonephritis (Bright’s Disease);
incontinence.
Disorders of the Urinary System
• Renal Calculi (kidney stones)
– caused by the crystallization of calcium,
magnesium or uric acid salts that precipitate
in the renal pelvis.
– If the calculi become large and travel down
the ureter, they can cause excruciating pain
which radiate from the flank to the anterior
abdominal wall on the same side.
• Cystitis
– typically caused by bacteria from the anal
region, but, can also be caused by sexually
transmitted diseases and various chemical
agents
– can lead to inflammation, fever, increased
urgency and frequency of urination and pain
• Glomerulonephritis ( Bright’s Disease)
– caused by inflammation of the glomeruli due
to an abnormal immune response
(autoimmune, streptococcal antibody
complexes).
– Inflammation of the glomeruli leads to faulty
filtration (passage of blood cells and proteins)
and possible kidney failure.
• Incontinence
– caused by loss of the ability to control
voluntary micturition (releasing urine from
the bladder) due to age, emotional disorders
pregnancy, damage to the nervous system,
stress, excessive laughing and coughing
– leads to wetting of clothing, discomfort and
embarassment
Objective 11
Describe the process involved in dialysis

therapy.
Dialysis Therapy
Dialysis is a process that artificially

removes metabolic wastes from the blood in
order to compensate for kidney (renal)
failure. Kidney failure results in the rapid
accumulation of nitrogen waste (urea, etc.)
which leads to azotemia. Uremia and ion
disturbances can also occur. This condition
can cause acidosis, labored breathing,
convulsions, coma and death.
Dialysis Therapy
The most common form of dialysis is
hemodialysis which uses a machine to
transfer patient’s blood through a
semipermeable tube that is permeable only
to selected substances. The dialysis machine
contains an appropriate dialysis fluid that
produces a diffusion gradient. This gradient
allows abnormal substances to diffuse from
the patient’s blood and produce a “cleaning”
effect.
Dialysis Therapy
Some key aspects of hemodialysis are:
- blood is typically transferred from an arm artery
- after dialysis, blood is typically returned to an arm vein
- to prevent clotting, blood is typically heparinized
- dialysis sessions occur about three times a week
- each dialysis session can last four to eight hours!
- long term dialysis can lead to thrombosis (fixed blood clots),
infection and death of tissue around a shunt (the blood access
site in the arm)

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Human Anatomy and Physiology II: Biology 1414 Unit 1 The Urinary System

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Human Anatomy and Physiology

List the functions of the urinary

• Filtration of the blood

• Reabsorption of vital nutrients, ions

• Secretion of excess materials

• Release of Erythropoietin by the

• Release of Renin by the kidney

• Secretion of H (+1) and reabsorption

Given a diagram of the Urinary

For Urinary Bladder

Male Sphincters Female Sphincters

Given a diagram of the kidney you

• The Renal Artery

Efferent arteriole Proximal convoluted

Bowman’s Peritubular capillaries

Collecting Decending limb of loop of

Ascending limb of loop of

Identify the parts of the Nephron

Describe the Juxtaglomerular Apparatus

Discuss the functioning of the counter

Were you able to locate the decending limb

As salt (NaCl) leaves the ALLH, the

The accumulated salt in the interstitium of

As the DLLH gives up water to the

Given the value for two of the following,

2) 100 g of glucose = ? - 300 g of glucose

3) 100 g of glucose = 400 g of glucose - ?

Answers: (1)equals zero; (2) equals 400; (3) equals 300

Given the concentration of a substance in

Plasma clearance is defined as the amount

120 ml/min = 2 ml/min x 30 mg/ml/ 0.5 mg/ml

Give the cause and describe the disease

Describe the process involved in dialysis

Dialysis is a process that artificially

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