Group 3

DAMARIS LUBANGA 1018823

OSINDI JAYNE 1018914
LILIAN NYARERU 1019031
JOYFLO WANJIRU 1018846
BRIAN MUTHOMI 1018908
WANJIKU KARANJA 1018831
CAROLINE GUY 1018895
DORIS PONI MOGGA 1019164
MARY ODINGA 1019101
 Refers to a way of determining how best to
structure development projects and
programs based on analysis of gender
relationships.
It developed in the 1980s and is not
concerned with women specifically but
rather with the way in which society assigns
roles, responsibilities and expectations to
both men and women.
 Itapplies gender analysis to unravel the ways
in which women and men work together
presenting results in neutral terms of
economics and efficiency.
 To meet both women and mens practical gender
needs
To better startegise development sturctures and
programs for a forward result
To challenge existing divisons of labour and
power relations
To widen the scope of womens roles in planning
development
To provides more information, bring benefits to
women and to society as a whole
To gain greater insight into the socially
constructed roles of men and women in roles
related to class, caste, ethnicity and age
 It is a socio-economic analysis which seeks to
uncover how gender relations affect a
developmental problem.
It aims to show the effect of gender relations
on a solution provided to a given
developmental problem.
Ituses the gender analysis framework; a
step-by-step methodology for conducting
gender analysis.
 Harvard Analytical Framework
Moser Framework
Gender Analysis Matrix
Capacities and Vulnerabilities Analysis
Framework
Longwes Women Empowerment Framework
Social Relations Appproach
 The Women in Development (WID) approach emerged in the
1970s, calling for treatment of "women's issues" in development
projects. Later, the Gender and Development (GAD) approach
proposed more emphasis on gender relations rather than seeing
women's issues in isolation

Catherine Overholt spearheaded the first gender analysis

framework in 1984, called Harvard Analytical Framework, whose
basis was the assumption that it makes both economic sense &
boosts efficacy if development aid projects to allocate resources
to women as well as men; i.e. efficiency approach.

Caroline Moser developed the Moser Framework for gender

analysis in the 1980s which includes gender roles identification,
gender needs assessment, disaggregating control of resources and
decision making withn the household, planning for balancing the
triple role, distinguishing between different aims in interventions
and involving women and gender-aware organizations in planning
 Itis a perspective that emphasizes on economic
roles of women in a society. Both inside and
outside homes and considers the activities essential
for survival of the family unit
Women do not need to be integrated into
development. Their contribution to development is
integral and only needs to be acknowledged and
certain equality questioned
 Cognitive Theory
discovered by a psychologist called Kholberg who focused
on the childs understanding; the way he/she tackles and
perceives a phenomena.
it has 3 stages of gender development
- Gender identity; (2 y.o.) the child recognizes their
gender and other peoples.
- Gender stability; (4-5 y.o.)the child understands
that their gender is fixed and will be male or female when
theyre older.
- Gender constancy; (5-7 y.o.) the child understands
that cosmetic changes will not alter

Gender Schema Theory

- Its a mental framework that organizes and guides a
childs understanding of information relevant to gender
e.g. A particular type of object, person or situation.
 Discord exists in how theorists conceptualize
gender and how the policy makers and
practitioners employ the concepts in the
field.
With the rise to prominence of 21st century
feminism and its recognition, the field of
Gender and Development is considered
purely dedicated to women; a myth.
Emphasises on the difference between men
and women thus neglecting bonds between
them
 GAD does not dig deep into social relations
and so may not explain how these relations
undermine programs directed at women
 The Feminist movement in totality opened
doors for GAD
However, GAD was biased in favour of women
as opposed to both genders
Gad cannot work if the law does not permit
it
 ORIGIN
THEORETICAL BASE
FOCUS
CONTRIBUTION
CRITIQUE
As long as development exists so do women exist
as beneficiaries of this so called development
work..For a long time it has been taken for
granted that any benefit to a society would
automatically trickle down to all members of the
society. No attention was given to the sexual
division of labour and the distribution of income
within the society or household. In 1970s
researchers n field workers and began to
document examples of the effects of
development projects on women. one of the first
writings on this subject which had a great impact
was Ester Boserup's women role in economic
development writing in 1970.In an attempt to
change the situation and to try to make
development projects more successful in terms
of reaching women.(WID,WAD).
 W.A.D originated in the 1970s
emerged from a critique modernization theory
and the WID approach
Its rooted in the dependency and Marxist
feminist ideology
For them economic change is equal
empowerment
Its derived from a political economic perspective
Focused on the relationship between women and
development processes,rather than strategies
for intergreting women into development.
 This perspective takes note that women have
always been important economic actors in
their societies

Itsa perspective that emphasizes on

economic roles of women in a society, both
inside and outside home, and considers the
activities essential for survival of family unit.

'Women need not be integrated into

development is integral and only needs
acknowledged and certain equality
questioned.
 -Accepts women as important economic
actors in their societies.

-Women's work in the public and private

domain is central to the mantainance of their
societal structures.
 Fails to analyze the relationship between patriarchy,
differing modes of production and women's
subordination and oppression.
Discourages a strict analytical focus on the problems
of women, independent of those of men since both
sexes are seen to be disadvantaged with oppression
global structure based on class and capital
Singular pre-occupation with women's productive
role at the expense of the reproductive side of
women's work and lives.
Assumes that one international structures become
more equitable, women's position would improve.
WAD does not question the relations between gender
roles.
 Rathgeber1990-"Even though the WAD
perspective offers a more critical view on
womens position than does WID Perspective,
it falls short.
It fails to undertake a full-scale analysis of
relationship between patriarchy, differing
modes of production and womens
subordination and oppression.
2.Its view point concentrated on productive
sector, at the expense of reproductive side of
women's work and lives.
WHAT IS W.I.D?

Women in development (WID) is an approach

to development projects that emerged in the
1970s, calling for treatment of women's
issues in development projects. Later, the
Gender and development (GAD) approach
proposed more emphasis on gender relations
rather than seeing women's issues in
isolation.
Origin
The term women in development was coined in the
early 1970s by a Washington-based network of female
development professionals (Women's Committee of the
Washington, DC, Chapter of the Society for
International Development).
On the basis of their own experiences in overseas
missions they argued that modernization was impacting
differently on men and women whereby instead of
improving womens rights and status, the development
process appeared to be contributing to a deterioration
of their position.
 Drawing on such evidence, womens circles in the United
States lobbied Congressional hearings, resulting in the 1973
Percy Amendment to the US Foreign Assistance Act.
It then required that assistance granted by the United States
was thereby required to help integrate women into the national
economies of foreign countries, thus improving their status and
assisting the total development effort.
The term women in development was subsequently adopted
by the United States agency for International Development
(USAID) in their WID approach, with the underlying rationale
that women can provide an economic contribution to
development though they remain as an untapped resource.
 In 1975, as part of WIDs outreach, the United Nations took
steps to establish an Institute for Training and Research for
the Advancement of Women (INSTRAW), and it equally
increased funds for women and development, presently known
as UNIFEM.
The WID movement thus emerged during a period which was
marked by a demand for social justice and equity for women as
evidenced by the 1975 World Conference of the
International Womens Year at Mexico City, and the United
Nations Decade for Women (1976-1985).
Formative influences
The resurgence of the womens movement (1970s)
The liberal feminist effort of achieving a just political system in
place for American women by seeking equal rights,
employment, equity for women was critical in determining the
language of political strategy used by WID advocates.
Central to liberal feminism was the idea that womens
disadvantages stem from stereotyped customary expectations
held by men and internalized by women, and promoted through
various agencies of socialization. It postulated that womens
disadvantages can, in principle, be eliminated by breaking
down these stereotypes.
One important theme of the feminist movement in this period,
especially in the United States, was equal employment
opportunities for women therefore, in turning to development
issues particular attention was paid to womens productive
labor, rather than social welfare and reproductive concerns.
 In developing countries however WID gave primacy to
womens productive roles and integration into the economy as
a means of improving their status.
This focus on Third World womens productive labor was part
of a strategy aimed at reformulating womens identity for
development policy.
Both early colonial authorities, and post-war development
agencies and NGOs, had identified women almost solely in
their roles as wives and mothers, and the policies for women
were restricted to social welfare concerns such as nutritional
education and home economics often referred to as the welfare
approach.
There was scant reference to the work women undertook as
producers ;be it for subsistence or for the market. This policy
formed the environment within which WID was born, and to
which it was reacting.
 The emerging body of research on women in developing
countries.
The work of the Danish economist, Ester Boserup, ( Womens
Role in Economic Develpoment) was most influential.
It challenged the assumptions of the welfare approach and
highlighted womens importance to the agricultural economy.
She characterized Sub-Saharan Africa as the great global area
of female farming systems in which women, using traditional
hoe technology, assumed a substantial responsibility for food
production.
She posited a positive correlation between the role women
played in agricultural production and their status vis-a-vis men.
 Boserups critique of colonial and post-colonial agricultural
policies was that through their productivity-enhancing
interventions and dominant Western notions about what
constituted appropriate female tasks, they had facilitated mens
monopoly over new technologies and cash crops and
undermined womens traditional roles in agriculture, thereby
heralding the demise of the female farming systems.
This, according to Boserup, was creating a dichotomy in the
African countryside where men were associated with the
modern, cash-cropping sector and women with traditional,
subsistence agriculture.
Relegated to the subsistence sector, women lost income, status
and power relative to men and their essential contribution to
agricultural production became invisible.
 Her work was taken up enthusiastically by WID advocates as it
legitimized efforts to influence development policy with a
combined argument for justice and efficiency. This is because:
- If, as Boserup suggested, women had in the past enjoyed a
position of relative equality with men in agricultural
production, then it was both appropriate and feasible for
development assistance directed towards women to remove
inequalities.
- by suggesting that in the recent past women were not only
equal in status to men, but also equally productive, Boserup
challenged the conventional wisdom that women were less
productive and therefore not entitled to a share of scarce
development resources
- the argument that African women had recently been equal to
African men meant that the claim that women should have
more equal access to resources could not be dismissed as a
western or feminist import
 WID advocates rejected the narrow view of womens roles (as
mothers and wives) underlying much of development policy
concerning women. Instead of characterizing women as needy
beneficiaries, WID arguments represent women as productive
members of society.
WID advocates emphasis on womens productive roles meant
that womens subordination (and by implication, overcoming
that subordination) was seen within an economic framework.
By explaining the difference in status and power between men
and women in terms of their relative economic contributions,
the origin of womens subordination was linked to their
exclusion from the market-place.
It was therefore argued that if women were brought into the
productive sphere more fully, not only would they make a
positive contribution to development, but they would also be
able to improve their status vis-a-vis men.
 Modernization paradigm developed in the US
It was developed after the World War II as an alternative to the
Marxist account of development theory, and decreed that
modernization, usually equated with industrialization, would
improve the standard of living in developing countries.
Economic growth being the prime objective, investment was
targeted to areas with high growth potential, with the
assumption of "trickle down" effect in favor of the poor.
This modernization and commercialization of agriculture only
worsened the inequality, and marginalized various social
groups, especially women.
As the WID approach was grounded on an acceptance of
existing social structures, it avoided questioning the sources
and nature of women's subordination and oppression in line
with the more radical structuralist perspectives e.g. dependency
theory or Marxist and neo-Marxist approaches.
 It instead advocated for their equal participation in education,
employment, and other spheres of society on the premise that
the people involved are the problem and that the solution lies in
overcoming the internalized impediments of poor women by
changing attitudes and providing education.
The WID approach also tended to overlook the important
classes and relations of exploitation among women nor did it
recognize this exploitation as being in itself a component of a
global system of capital accumulation.
According to the structuralists, on the other hand, since the
system is inherently exploitative of women, further
incorporation into the system cannot be the solution.
They depict WID as a blame the victim strategy, which
ignores the structural context which frames women's
underdevelopment.
 Impact of WID
The impact of the early WID movement can be analyzed on
two fronts namely:
- in terms of the discussions and research that it generated
- in the impetus it gave to the growth of institutional
machineries within development agencies and governments in
their mandate being to integrate women into development.
By highlighting womens participation in production,
researchers have provided a timely challenge both to the
definition of work (and active labor) and to the methods of
data collection used for generating official statistics.
An important component of this has been the attempt to deal
with the much-debated category of family labor which is also
rendered culturally invisible by falling under the category of
housework.
 The evaluation of development projects designed by
international development agencies to increase productivity
and/or incomes has resulted in the revealing of many cases
overt discrimination against women. For example, agricultural
innovation practices and extension services failed to recognize
womens role in agricultural production or where male farmers
received inputs and extension advice for crops that only women
grew.
Emergence of a shift in thinking that took WID well beyond
women-only projects and tried to integrate a concern for
women into mainstream projects and programs. It was deemed
insufficient to rely on special projects for women (e.g. income-
generating projects), and important to ensure that women
benefited from mainstream development programs and projects
as well.
 Criticisms of WID
It was argued that WID programs as implemented by
international development agencies originated in two modernist
discourse namely the colonial discourse and the liberal
discourse on markets. Critics thought that the colonial
discourse homogenized 3rd world people by using the image of
a poor woman as an object of pity and the liberal discourse
promoted individualism and free markets which was thought to
be disempowering to the 3rd world woman.
WIDs neglect of welfare concerns. This is because divorcing
welfare concerns from policy discourse on women may in fact
generate as many problems as womens severance from
production did in an earlier generation of development projects
and programs.
 1. Agriculture
Women are the majority of the worlds rural population
Majority of the small farmers producing food in 3rd world
countries are women
In the Andean region,(south America) , women engage in
agricultural field work; i.e. planting, weeding and milking of
animals e.g. cattle
In Cameroon, existence of womens farming systems are separate
and distinct from those of their male fathers, husbands and
brothers.
in recent studies, its been shown that resources allocated to the
farm household and agriculture as a whole, are made available
to more men than women e.g. more men receive more elaborate
information on modernized farming, than women.
 possible solution:

Efforts are underway to equalize allotment

of agricultural resources so that women
have the opportunity to actively take part
in development
 2. Employment and income
generation
in the past decade, development activities have targeted
women as beneficiaries
these development activities have been primarily focused on
womens reproductive roles and the general nurturing
characteristic of women.
Projects aimed at directly increasing womens income have
typically been small scale with little attention paid to
effective marketing or long-term viability
Such small scale income generating programs do little to
address long-term economic needs of low-income women
Poor women in developing countries bear major economic
responsibilities though they are generally less well educated
than their male counterparts and also have less access to
modern productive resources
These women therefore have to fill jobs requiring little skilled
work and are generally low paying.
 solution:
The society as a whole and governments must encourage
attempts to break the pattern of womens relegation to low
productivity occupations with no growth potential
This can be accomplished by designing into projects ; the
expansion of employment opportunities in sectors where
women have not traditionally worked, and in those
relatively new sectors of the economy where gender-
specific work roles are not yet entrenched. Governments
can also fund and support occupational training programs
for women at two basic levels
I . technical and industrial sector
ii. Management skills to prepare women for
entry in to white collar jobs
 Energy and natural resource
conservation
In villages of 3rd world countries; women are important
provides and consumers of energy
Traditionally, animal and human energy had been used to
plant, harvest, prepared food, obtain fuel for warmth and
cooking
Women and girls were to collect firewood, dung or crop
residue to use for the above purposes
Women again do not have as many opportunities as their
male counterparts in the arena of modern energy-providing
schemes
This is because men have dominated most energy-related
careers e.g. engineering
 solutions:

Introduction of more convenient energy

gaining resources
Increased education of women in fields of
engineering and other energy-related
careers
 Bauman was the first to recognize the
importance of women in farming in his
classical article Division of work according
to sex in Africa
Kaberry published a much quoted study of
women in Cameroon in 1952
Galletti Baldwin wrote about male and
female activities in Nigerian cocoa Farmers
published in 1956
According to the 1971 census in India,
women constituted 48.2% of the population
but only 13% took part in economical activity
 Women were excluded from many types of
formal jobs so 94% of women were engaged in
unorganized sector employed in agriculture,
agro-forestry, fisheries
 the process of assessing the implications for
women and men of any planned action, including
legislation, policies or programs, in all areas and
at all levels. It is a strategy for making womens
as well as mens concerns and experiences an
integral dimension of the design,
implementation, monitoring and evaluation of
policies and programs in all political, economic
and societal spheres so that women and men
benefit equally and inequality is not
perpetuated. The ultimate goal is to achieve
gender equality. (ECOSOC 1997/2)
Policy and Analytic Approaches of WID
Gender relations do not operate in a social vacuum but
are products of the way in which institutions are
organized and reconstituted (Kabeer, 1996 A
thinker)
a)WID
Calls for a greater intention to women in development,
policy and practice.
Emphasizes the need to integrate women in
development.
It evolved in 1970 from a liberal feminist framework
It was a reaction to women being seen as passive
beneficiaries of development
.Welfare: Focus on poor women, mainly in the roles of wife and
mother. This was the only approach during colonial periods, and
was favoured by many missionaries.
Equity: Focus on equality between women and men and fair
distribution of benefits of development
Anti-poverty: Women targeted as the poorest of the poor,
with emphasis on income-generating activities and access to
productive resources such as training and micro-finance.
Efficiency: Emphasis on need for womens participation for
success, effectiveness of development; assumes increased
economic participation will result in increased equity. They are
most likely to be useful when advocacy for the advancement of
women is based on the more effective use of all factors of
production, and/or desire for stronger and more sustainable
project results. This is the approach currently most favored by
development agencies

Empowerment: Focus on increasing womens capacity to

analyze their own situation and determine their own life choices
and societal directions. Likely to be most useful where a human
development and rights-based approach to development
predominates, or is desired.
 Highlighted the fact that women had to be
integrated into development processes as active
agents in order to achieve efficient and effective
development.
Womens significant production was made visible
though their reproductive role was downplayed.
Womens subordination was seen via:
I. Their exclusion from the market sphere
II. Limited access to and control over resources
 Programs
informed by WID approach addressed
womens practical needs e.g. by:
i. Creating employment and income generating
opportunities.
ii. Improving access to education and credit facilities.
Therefore, WID puts forth that womens problem is
insufficient participation in a benign development
process through an oversight on behalf of policy
makers.
b) Gender and Development
Focuses on the socially constructed basis of
differences between men and women.
Emphasizes on the need to challenge existing
gender roles and relations.
It emerged as a cry of frustration brought about by
the lack of progress of WID (which was aimed at
changing womens lives in order to influence the
broader development agenda).
 GAD challenged the agenda of WID by purpoting
that womens real problem was not insufficient
participation on development processes but the
imbalance of power between men and women
There are several interpretations of GAD i.e.
i. Gender Division of labor
ii. Focus on gender as a relation of power embedded in
institutions
END