The Historical development of

number and number systems

BY FN VATILENI
 What really is a number?
2

Definition: is a value that represents a quantity along a

line.
It include all the:
Rational numbers (e.g. integer 5 and the fraction 4/3)
Irrational numbers, (e.g. 2 =1.41421356, the square
root of 2)

Other e.g of real numbers:

75?
23ab 5
7r
C, L

By Mrs FN Vatileni 6/27/2017

 Historical Developments
3

The number system we have today started

developing long time ago
Introduced because human beings wanted to
solve problems and created numbers to solve
these problems
About ~3000 B.C. the Egyptians were the highest
rulers
The Sumerians showed signs of a much higher
mathematical understanding (~3000 B.C.)
Followed by Chinese, who seemed to have worked
largely in isolation, ~2500 B.C.E.

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 Egyptians (3000-1000 B.C.)
4

Throughout history, a variety of numeration system

has been developed to represent numbers.

Today, the number system we are most familiar with

is the Hindu-Arabic numeral system.

Improved tally system Hieroglyphics

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 Egyptians (3000-1000 B.C.) cont.
5

Hieroglyphics is a formal writing system used

by the ancient Egyptians that
combined logographic and alphabetic elements
Logographic systems, or logographies, are writing
systems in which each symbol represents a concept
rather than a sound.
Their systems were based on groupings of 10
Add and Double
Used their numeration system for measurement

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 6

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 7

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 Englands five-barred gate
8

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 The Elema of New Guinea
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 Timeline of Numbers
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3000 BC: The Egyptians and Babylonians were first

recorded as using the natural numbers and rationals.
While Egyptians use base 10, Babylonians use base 60,
probably because of the large number of factors that 60 has.
500 BC: The Greek philosopher sect called the Pythagoreans
suppresses evidence that irrationals exist, by murdering the
mathematician responsible for the proof.
300 BC: Euclid releases his proof of the existence of the
irrationals.
600 AD: The Arabic number system is started. This is a
place value system in base 10, including the number
zero.
15th Century: Arabic number system becomes prevalent in
Europe. Negative numbers are defined.

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 Timeline of Numbers cont.
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16th Century: Imaginary numbers are first used to give notional

solutions.
The imaginary number 'i' is the square root of -1. This number
doesn't actually exist.
17th Century: Complex arithmetic is defined as part of
mathematics (arithmetic that uses the imaginary number ).

18th Century: The Euler Equation is used to define the natural

logarithm of negative numbers.

19th Century: Cantor and his diagonal argument define the real
numbers absolutely and defend them rigorously. The argument also
establishes countable and uncountable infinities.

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 12

20th Century: Gdel's Incompleteness Theorem

rules out total completeness of mathematics.

It put a stop to that by proving that there is no

system that can solve every problem, but for most
problems, the principle holds.

(Theorem = a general proposition not self-

evident but proved by a chain of reasoning; a
truth established by means of accepted truths.)

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 13

The natural numbers (positive integers and non-zero)

were used by people in the Stone Age for counting things like
property and enemies.

Zero was used as a number representing the state of not

having something.

Negatives came along much later to allow debt

collectors to work out how much they could extract
from those suffering from an overload of zeroes.

By Mrs FN Vatileni 6/27/2017

 Place Value
14

Place value started with the Babylonians with their

use of their dot.
Based 10 place value system started with the
Hindus(600 A.D.)
Hindu recognized zero as a number
Arabs (9th century) adopted the Hindus system
Indian Word Sunya- absence of quantity
Mahavira wrote that number multiplied by zero
will result in zero
Bhaskara declared a number divided by zero will
have infinite quanity

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 Zero (cont.)
15

Even in 16th and 17th century some

mathematicians still didnt consider zero as a
number
Thomas Harriot began to use this idea in
solving algebraic equations
Descartes popularized Harriots idea
During 18th century zero grew to a place holder to
number for algebraic equations

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Next,,,,

You will learn about features and various

attributes of this number system.

As you study other number systems, try to relate

the information to the one another.

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 Mostly on ancient number systems
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1. Hindu-Arabic numerals system

This numeration system evolved around A.D.
800.
It is basically the numeration system that is widely
used today.

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Attributes of this Hindu-Arabic numeration system
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First, it uses 10 digits or symbols that can be used in

combination to represent all possible numbers
The digits are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.

Second, it groups by tens, probably because we have 10 digits

on our two hands.
Interestingly enough, the word digit literally means finger or
toes.

In the Hindu-Arabic numeration system, ten ones are replaced by

one ten, ten tens are replaced by one hundred, ten hundreds are
replaced by one thousand,
10 one thousand are replaced by 10 thousands, and so forth...

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 Attributes of Hindu-Arabic numeration system cont.
19

Third, it uses a place value.

Starting from right to left, the first number represents
how many ones there are,
the second number represents how many tens
there are,
the third number represents how many hundreds
there are,
the fourth number represents how many
thousands there are, and so on.

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 Attributes of Hindu-Arabic numeration system cont.
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E.g., in the numeral 4687, there are 7 ones, 8 tens, 6

hundreds, and 4 thousands

Finally, the system is additive and multiplicative.

The value of a numeral is found by multiplying each place
value by its corresponding digit and then adding the resulting
products
Place values: thousand hundred ten one
Digits 4 6 8 7
Numeral value is equal to 4 1000 + 6 100 + 8 10 + 7
1 = 4000 + 600 + 80 + 7 = 4687

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 Attributes of Hindu-Arabic numeration system cont.
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Notice that the Hindu-Arabic numeration system

require requires fewer symbols to represent
numbers as opposed to other numeration systems.

Each Hindu-Arabic numeral has a word name. Here is

short list:
0: Zero 10: Ten
1: One 11: Eleven
2: Two 15: Fifteen
3: Three 20: Twenty

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2. Tally numerals system

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It is probably the simplest of all ancient numerals

/numeration systems ever used. Take note of its
simplicity, advantages, but also some of its flaws.

This numeration is used a lot in statistics.

It makes use of single strokes to represent object
being counted.
One stroke is used for each object.

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 Tally numerals system cont.
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The following shows how we can use stroke(s) to represent the count
for 1, 2, or 3 squares.

Although one advantage is simplicity, there are two disadvantages.

First, large number will require an aweful lots of strokes.

Second, it will be somewhat difficult to read such large number

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 Tally numerals system cont.
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For example, can you tell what number is

represented by the tally marks below?

Tally numeration of 20.

Right now, you might be using your finger to count
these strokes.
However, would you be able to do that without
confusing yourself or losing your place if there were 50
strokes?

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 Tally numerals system cont.
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The introduction of grouping made it a lot easier

to read numbers.
We place a fifth tally mark across every four to make
a group of 5.

Did you notice that you were able to find the number
a lot faster?

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 3. Egyptian numeration system
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A system that uses symbols such as fish,

heelbone, lotus flower,... to represent numbers.
It is easy to understand, but calculation can
become quickly cumbersome.
The Egyptian numeration system evolved around
3400 BCE.
It uses special symbols to represent numbers
that are power of 10

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 Egyptian numeral system cont.
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See the symbols below. Study them carefully before

you look at the examples that follow.

Notice that for number greater than 10, this

numeration system will require fewer symbols than
the Tally numeration system.

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Examples of Egyptian numeral system
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245 can be represented as:

2008 can be represented as:

2,320,111 can be represented as:

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 Examples of Egyptian numeral system cont.
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By now, you should have noticed that this

system is additive. However, addition can quickly
become a pain in the neck if you are doing
addition

You may need many symbols to express an

addition problem

Here is an example of addition with Egyptian

numerals:

290 + 820 = 1,110

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 Examples of Egyptian numeral system cont.
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290 + 820 = 1,110

By Mrs FN Vatileni 6/27/2017

 4. Roman numerals system
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Many of us have become familiar to this

numerals system through books since many books
use roman numerals as page numbers.
Some may have noticed them in movies (e.g. date
when a movie is produced).
Roman numeration system evolved around 500
BCE.
Just like other ancient numeration systems, it
uses special symbols to represent numbers.

By Mrs FN Vatileni 6/27/2017

 Roman numerals system cont.
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The basic Roman numerals are the followings. Study

them, it could become handy one day.

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 Roman Numerals cont.
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 Roman Numerals cont.
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Examples:

1) 154 is equivalent to CLIIII in Roman numerals

2) 1492 is equivalent to MCCCCLXXXXII in Roman

numerals

3) 3495 is equivalent to MMMCCCCLXXXXV in

Roman numerals

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 Roman Numerals cont.
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Now try these:

XXXVI
XL
XVII
DCCLVI
MCMLXIX

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 Roman Numerals cont.
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Over time, two useful attributes were introduced that

made the Roman numeration system very useful and efficient

The first one is the subtractive principle

With the subtractive principle, Roman numerals can be

combined or paired so that when reading from left to
right, the values of the symbols in any pair increase.

The value of the new pair is:

Bigger number in the pair Smaller number in the pair

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 Roman Numerals cont.
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For instance, I can pair I and V to make IV and the

value of this pair will be V I = 5 1 = 4

I can pair C and D to make CD and the value of this

pair will be D C = 500 100 = 400

I can pair X and L to make XL and the value of this

pair will L X = 50 10 = 40

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 Roman Numerals cont.
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This subtractive principle will make the writting of

examples 1), 2), and 3) a lot simpler

1) CLIIII = CLIV

2) MCCCCLXXXXI = ?

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 Roman Numerals cont.
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Instead of CCCC, we can pair C and D to get CD and CD =

400 as demonstrated above

Also, instead of LXXXX, we can pair X and C to make XC

since XC still equal to 90

Replacing CCCC (in bold) by CD, we get:

MCCCCLXXXII = MCDLXXXXII

Replacing LXXXX by XC (in blue), we get:

MCDLXXXXII= MCDXCII

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 Roman Numerals cont.
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So, instead of using 11 symbols, we can just use 7 to

represent the same number
3) MMMCCCCLXXXXV = MMMCDXCV
The second one is the multiplicative principle
Basically, a horizontal bar above any number means
1000 times the number

Examples

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 Roman Numerals cont.
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Roman Numerals Task 1

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 Roman Numerals cont.
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Roman Numerals Task 2

Write as Arabic numerals:

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 5. Babylonian numerals system
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The Babylonian numeration system was developed between

3000 and 2000 BCE. Writings was on clay tablets.
Number system based on grouping of 60

It uses only two symbols to represent all possible

numbers.
It uses only two numerals or symbols, a one and a ten to
represent numbers and they looked this these:

However, it is probably one of the most ambiguous of all

numerals.

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 Babylonian numerals system cont.
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To represent numbers from 2 to 59, the system was simply

additive.
Example 1:

5 is written as shown:

12 is written as shown:

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 Babylonian numerals system cont.
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Notice how the ones, in this case two ones are

shown on the right just like the Hindu-Arabic
numeration system.

45 is written as shown:

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 Babylonian numerals system cont.
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For number bigger than 59, the Babylonian used a place

value system with a base of 60

62 is written as shown:

Notice this time the use of a big space to separate the space
value

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 Babylonian numerals system cont.
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Without the big space, things look like this:

However, what is that number without this big

space? Could it be 2 60 + 1 or 1 602 + 1 60 +
1 or something else?

The Babylonians introduced the big space after

they became aware of this ambiguity.

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 Babylonian numerals system cont.
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The number 4871 could be represented as follow:

3600 + 1260 + 11 = 4871

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 Babylonian numerals system cont.
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Even after the big space was introduced to separate

place value, the Babylonians still faced a more
serious problem?

How would they represent the number 60?

Since there was no zero to put in an empty position,

the number 60 would thus have the same
representation as the number 1.

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 Babylonian numerals system cont.
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How did they make the difference? All we can say is

that the context must have helped them to establish
such difference yet the Babylonian numeration
system was without a doubt a very ambiguous
numeral system

If this had become a major problem, no doubt the

Babylonians were smart enough to come up with a
working system

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 6. Mayan numerals system
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This number system should be studied last.

It uses three basic symbols yet it is probably one of

the most sophisticated and most complicated of
all numerals.

The Mayan numeration system evolved around A.D. 300.

It uses 3 basic numerals to represent any possible

number: a dot for one, a horizontal bar for 5, and a
conch shell for zero.

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 Mayan numerals system cont.
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They used the 3 symbols above to represent the

numbers from 0 through 19 as shown below:

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 Mayan numerals system cont.
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For number bigger than 19, a number is written

in a vertical position so that it becomes a vertical
place value system

Initially, the base used in the Mayan

numeration system was base 20 and their place
values were 1, 20, 202,203, ...

Then, they changed their place values to 1, 20, 20

18, 202 18, 203 18, ...

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 Mayan numerals system cont.
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In the ones place we have 0 and in the twenties place

we have 1, so the number is 0 1 + 1 20 = 0 + 20 =
20

Still using a base of 20, we can write 100 as follow:

0 1 + 5 20 = 0 + 20 = 100

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 Mayan numerals system cont.
55

Here is how to represent 2007

5 202 + 0 20 + 7 = 5 400 + 0 + 7 = 2000 + 7 = 2007

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 Mayan numerals system cont.
56

Look carefully and see how I separated the place

values

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 Mayan numerals system cont.
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Again, I separated according to numbers that are the list

above from 1 through 19

The number is: 14 + 7 20 + 1 202 + 3 203 + 0 204

+ 15 205 + 5 206

= The number is 14 + 140 + 1 400 + 3 8,000 + 0 + 15

3,200,000 + 5 64,000,000

= The number is = 14 + 140 + 400 + 24,000 + 0 +

48,000,000 + 320,000,000 = 368024554

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 Mayan numerals system cont.
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With the base 1, 20, 20 18, 202 18, 203 18, ...
computation is done the exact same way!

Group as shown below:

The number is 11 1 + 1 20 + 10 20 18 = 11 + 20 + 3600

= 3631

No doubt, the Mayan numeration system was sophisticated.

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 Mayan Maths
59

twenties units

twenties units

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6.The Greek Numeral System
Arithmetic with Greek Numeral System
 Zero and the Indian Sub-Continent Numeral System
62

You know the origin of the positional number, and its

drawbacks.
One of its limits is how do you represent tens, hundreds, etc.
A number system to be as effective as ours, it must possess a
zero.
In the beginning, the concept of zero was synonymous with
empty space.
Some societies came up with solutions to represent nothing.
The Babylonians left blanks in places where zeroes should be.
The concept of empty and nothing started becoming
synonymous.
It was a long time before zero was discovered.

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 Cultures that Conceived Zero

63

Zero was conceived by these societies:

Mesopotamia civilization 200 BC 100 BC
Maya civilization 300 1000 AD
Indian sub-continent 400 BC 400 AD

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 64

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 References
65

http://www.basic-mathematics.com/numeration-
system.html

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 66

End

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 Negative Numbers
67

Brahmagupta (7th Century), Indian mathematician,

recognized that negative number can be treated as
debt
Bhaskara ignore the negative roots because at the
time there wasnt a clear understanding of negative
roots
Acceptance of negative numbers began in 17th
century
Descartes called negative roots false roots

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 Negative Numbers (cont.)
68

Isaac Newton began to call negative numbers less

than nothing
Euler treated negative numbers as debts and
interpret that product of two negative numbers is a
positive number
There were still doubters even in the higher ranks of
the mathematic community
The move to abstraction made negative numbers
more acceptable

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 Complex Numbers
69

Early times if the quadratic formula lead to square

root of a negative number then you have no solution
Cardano noticed this problem but didnt know what
to do about it
Rafael Bombelli invented a new language to treat
these negative radicals
Bombellis work showed that sometimes the square
roots of a negative number can be used to find real
solutions

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 Complex Number (cont.)
70

Euler used complex numbers a lot, but didnt resolve

the issue of what they were
Argand suggested to represent imaginary numbers
geometrically on a plane
Gauss proposed the same ideas as Argand and
showed it could be useful in mathematics

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 Questions?
71

By Mrs FN Vatileni 6/27/2017