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3D Chapter3 Sec.3.7 3.9 Color
3D Chapter3 Sec.3.7 3.9 Color
3D Chapter3 Sec.3.7 3.9 Color
Chapter Three
Sections 3.7 through 3.9
Bioheat Equation
An assumption made in writing Eq. (3.112) is that the flowing blood exits
at the local tissue temperature T.
Bioheat equation (cont.)
which is identical in form to the equation for fins of uniform cross section
d 2q
- m 2
q =0 (3.69)
dx 2
Hence the results of Section 3.6.2 and Table 3.4 may be applied to solve
the bioheat equation.
Problem: Metabolic heating
Schematic:
Assumptions: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional heat transfer, (3) Metabolic heat
generation rate, perfusion rate, arterial temperature, blood properties, and thermal conductivities
are all uniform, (4) No generation in skin/fat layer, (5) Solar irradiation of skin is negligible.
Analysis: For a skin surface temperature of Ts = 33C, the heat loss from the skin to the environment is
Since there is no generation in the skin/fat layer, the interface temperature between the
skin/fat layer and the muscle layer is found from a conduction analysis for the skin/fat
Heat transfer in the muscle is governed by Eq. 3.114. From Example 3.12, the rate at which heat leaves
the muscle and enters the skin/fat layer is determined by utilizing a solution of the fin equation as
dT q cosh mL
% m - qc
q x = L = - km A = -km Am% i
m dx x = Lm %m
sinh mL
This heat rate must equal the rate at which heat is transferred across the skin/fat layer, q = 248 W.
Inserting the definitions of qi Ti - Ta - q&m / (wrb cb ) and qc Tc - Ta - q&m / (wrb cb ) we can solve
for the required metabolic heat rate:
q
% m + (Ti - Ta )coshmL
sinhmL %m + (Tc - Ta )
km Am%
q&m = wrb cb
coshmL%m + 1
Problem: Metabolic heating (cont.)
where
1/2
0.0005 s-1 1000 kg/m3 3600 J/kg
m%= wrb cb / km = K = 60 m-1
K 0.5 W/m
and with
COMMENTS: Shivering can increase the metabolic heat rate by six times the resting rate. The value found
here is about 3 times the resting rate given in Example 3.12.
Thermoelectric Power Generation
( E1 - E2 ) = S ( T1 - T2 ) (3.115)
q&
Ac2, s
Assuming constant properties and using Equation C.7, the heat conducted
into the semiconducting material at the hot side is
Thermal conductivity of
the semiconductor material
k s I 2 r e,s L
q( x = - L) = 2 Ac ,s ( T1 - T2 ) - 2 ( 3.118b)
2 L A c ,s
Assuming the thin metal conductors pose negligible thermal resistance and
no contact resistance effects, combining Equations 3.118b and 3.119 yields
Ac , s k s I 2 re, s L
q1 = ( T1 - T2 ) + IS p - nT1 - 2 ( 3.121)
L Ac , s
A similar analysis can be performed for the cool side of the circuit (T2)
yielding
Ac , s ks I 2 re, s L
q2 = ( T1 - T2 ) + IS p - nT2 + 2 ( 3.122)
L Ac , s
Thermoelectric power generation (cont.)
From an energy balance on the entire circuit, the electric power produced
by the circuit, P, is
P = q1 - q2 ( 3.123)
I 2 re, s L
P = IS p - n (T1 - T2 ) - 4 = IS p - n (T1 - T2 ) - 2 I 2 Re,s ( 3.124)
Ac, s
where the electric power produced by the circuit is consumed in the load
P = I 2 Re,load
Thermoelectric power generation (cont.)
(T1 - T2 )
q1 = + IS p - n,eff T1 - I 2 Re,eff ( 3.125)
Rt ,cond,mod
(T1 - T2 )
q2 = + IS p - n,eff T2 + I 2 Re,eff ( 3.126)
Rt ,cond,mod
Problem 3.171: Cylindrical uranium heat source used for power generation
in space. Cooling of thermoelectric modules by radiation to deep
space (4K). M = 80 modules wired in series. Determine electric
power for E&g = 1, 10, 100 kW. Also determine the surface
temperature of the modules.
Schematic:
Module characteristics :
Dimensions: WW
Assumptions: (1) One-dimensional, steady-state conduction, (2) Constant properties, (3) Large surroundings
(4) Module thermal resistance is dominated by the semiconducting pellets.
Problem: Thermoelectric power generation with radiation cooling (cont.)
Analysis: A thermal circuit may be drawn that incorporates Equations 3.125, 3.126, 3.127 and the radiation rate
equation. The circuit for one module is:
1 (T1 - T2 )
q2 = (T1 - T2 ) + IS p - n,eff T2 + I 2 Re,eff = + I 0.1435 V/K T2 + I 2 4 W (3)
Rt ,cond,mod 1.736 K/W
where,
es+(
hr + )(T22 Tsur2 ) 0.93 5.67 10-8 W/m 2 K (T2
T2 Tsur=++= 4 K) (T22 (4 K) 2 ) (5)
The electric power produced by all M = 80 modules, Ptot, is related to the power
generated in each module, PN, and the load resistance, Re,load
Ptot = MPN = M
IS p -n,eff (T1 - T2 ) - 2 I 2 Re,eff
= I Re,load
2
or,
I 0.1435 V/K (T1 - T2 ) - 2 I 2 4 W
80
= I 250 W
2
(6)
E&g
Problem: Thermoelectric power generation with radiation cooling (cont.)
Upon specification ofE& Equation (1) may be solved for q1. Equations (2)
g
through (6) may then be solved simultaneously for T1, T2, I, q2, and hr.
COMMENTS: (1) The temperature for the highest thermal energy generation rate is unacceptably
high. (2) The electric power generated is relatively high, but the conversion efficiency, h, is low. The
efficiency increases with generation rate because of larger temperature differences across the modules,
which are T = 8, 52, and 310 K for the low, medium, and high generation rates, respectively. (3) What
steps might be taken to increase T and, in turn, increase the conversion efficiency?
Micro- and Nanoscale Conduction
Conduction
in a gas
Gas molecule motion between two isothermal solid walls at Ts,1 > Ts,2.
The separation distance between the walls is L1 >> L2. Molecule-wall
collisions become more important as L/mfp becomes small, affecting
heat transfer by conduction through the gas layer, qx.
Conduction in a gas layer
The collision and scattering of a gas molecule with a solid surface is described
by a thermal accommodation coefficient, t. Molecule temperature
leaving the surface
T -T
t = i sc
Molecule temperature Ti - Ts ( 3.130)
Properties: Table A.4 (T = 300 K): Air; cp = 1007 J/kgK, k = 0.0263 W/mK. Figure 2.8: Air;
M = 28.97 kg/kmol, d = 0.372 10-9 m.
Analysis: For air the ideal gas constant, specific heat at constant volume, and ratio of specific heats are:
R 8.315 kJ/kmol
K kJ
R= = = 0.287 ;
M 28.97 kg/kmol kg
K
kJ kJ kJ c p 1.007
cv = c p - R = 1.007 - 0.287 = 0.720 ; g = = = 1.399
kg
K kg
K kg
K cv 0.720
Problem: Conduction through thin gas layers (cont.)
For L = 1 mm,
L 110-3 m
Rt ,m - m = = = 380.2 K/W
K 10 10-3 m 10 10 -3 m
kA 0.0263 W/m
mfp 2 - t
9g - 5 66.5 10-9 m 2 - 0.92
9 1.399 - 5
Rt ,m- s = =
kA t g + 1 + 0.0263 W/m K 100 10 m 0.92 1.399 1
-6 2
= 0.09392 K/W
Ts ,1 - Ts ,2 305K - 295K
qx = = = 0.0263 W
(R t ,m - m + Rt ,m - s ) ( 380.2 K/W + 0.09392 K/W ) <
Similarly, for L = 1 m,
Ts ,1 - Ts ,2 305K - 295K
qx = = = 21.09 W <
( Rt ,m-m + Rt ,m-s ) ( 0.3802 K/W + 0.09392 K/W )
And for L = 10 nm,
Ts ,1 - Ts ,2 305K - 295K
qx =
(R + Rt ,m - s )
=
( 0.0038 K/W + 0.09392 K/W )
= 102.3 W <
t ,m - m
Problem: Conduction through thin gas layers (cont.)
If the molecule-surface interaction and corresponding resistance is neglected, the conduction heat rate
is determined from
kA
qx =
L
( Ts,1 - Ts,2 ) ( 1)
The actual conduction heat transfer rates and conduction heat transfer rates calculated from Equation 1
are compared below.
1 m 15 21.09 W 26.3 W
COMMENTS: For relatively large plate spacing, molecule-solid resistances may be safely neglected.
However, as L/mfp becomes smaller, such resistances may become important (L = 1 m) or
dominant (L = 10 nm).