Basal ganglia

What are the basal

ganglia?

The name is confusing, as

generally a ganglion is a
collection of cell bodies
outside the central nervous
system. But here the basal
ganglia are a collection of
nuclei deep to the white
matter of cerebral cortex.
 Development of basal ganglia
Each cerebral hemisphere arises at the beginning of 5th week
of development.As it expands superiorly its walls thicken and
interventricular foramen becomes reduced in size.
The mesenchyme b/w each cerebral hemisphere condenses
to form falx cerebri.
As the development proceeds ,the cerebral hemispheres grow
and expand rapidly,1st anteriorly to form frontal lobes then
laterally and superiorly to form parietal lobes,and
posteriorly and inferiorly to form occipital and temporal
lobes.
As a result of great expansion,the hemisphere cover the
midbrain and hindbrain.
 Matrix cells
(proliferates producing)

 Neuroblasts
 (encroaching on cavity called)

Corpus straitum
(differnciating into)

caudate lentiform
(dorsomedial) (ventrolateral)

putamen g.pallidus
(lateral) (medial)
While these various masses are developing,maturing neurons
in different parts of nervous system are sending axons either
to or from the differenciating cortex.
These axons form the large ascending and desending tracts
which as they develop,are forced to pass b/w thalamus and
caudate nucleus medially and lentiform nucleus laterally.
The compact bundle of asc.&desc . tracts is known as internal
capsule
The external capsule consists of few cortical projection fibers
that pass lateral to the lentiform nucleus.
Basal nuclei or basal ganglia
the term basal nuclei refers to a collection of masses of grey
matter situated within each cerebral hemisphere.They are
Corpus straitum
The amygdaloid nucleus &
claustrum
Corpus straitum
Situated lateral to
thalamus
Divided by a band of
nerve fibers,internal
capsule into

Caudate lentiform
nucleus nucleus
Caudate nucleus
C-shaped mass of grey
matter,surrounded by lateral
ventricle
Concavity encloses thalamus
and internal capsule
Consists of
Head
Body &
Tail
 Head:
Large,rounded
Forms lateral wall of anterior horn of lateral ventricle & medial wall
of anterior limb of internal capsule
Body:-
long and narow
Forms the floor of central limb of lateral ventricle and lies medial
to posterior limb of internal capsule
Tail:-
Long and slender
Forms the roof of inferior horn of lateral ventricle and ends by
joining the amygdaloid body at temporal pole.
Lentiform nucleus:-
Wedge shaped mass of grey
matter
Forms lateral boundary of
internal capsule.
Lies b/w insula and claustrum
It has 3 surfaces
Lateral-relates to ext.capsule,
claustrum,insula
Medial –relates to
intr.capsule,caudate nucleus
&thalamus
Inferior-relates to sublentiform
part of intr capsule separating it
from optic tract,tail of caudate
nucleus and inferior horn of
lateral ventricle.
Lentiform nucleus is further subdivided into two parts by thin lamina
of white matter
Larger part being called
putamen
Smaller medial part is
called globus
palidus,made up of large
motor cells
Amygdaloid nucleus
 It is so named because its shape resembles an almond.
 Situated in temporal lobe
 lies anterosuperior to inferior horn of lateral ventricle.
 Continous with the tail of caudate nucleus,but functionally
related to stria terminalis.
 is a part of limbic system.
 Is continous with the cortex of uncus,lumen insulae and
anterior perforated substance.
 Through its connections it can influence the body’s response
to environmental changes.
Claustrum
Thin sheet of grey matter
Separted from lateral surface of lentiform nucleus by
external capsule.
Lateral to claustrum is subcortical white matter of
insula
Substantia nigra and subthalamic nuclei:-
Substantia nigra of mid
brain& subthalamic nuclei of
diencephalon are funtionally
closely related to the activities
of basal nuclei .
The neurons of s.nigra are
dopaminergic&inhibitory and
have connection to corpus
straitum.
Neurons of subthalamic nuclei
are glutaminergic&
excitatory and have
connectins to g.pallidus and
s.nigra.
Projections to basal ganglia
The motor nuclei of the basal ganglia are divided into
several functionally distinct groups .
The first and larger of these groups is called the
corpus striatum, including
the caudate
putamen. Input zone
 the other group being:-
Globus pallidus
Substantia nigra Output zone
The destination of incoming axons from the cortex are dendrites
of a class of cells called medium spiny neurons in corpus
striatum.
The large dendritic trees of these neurons allows them to
integrate inputs from variety of cortical,thalamic and brainstem
structures.
The axons arising from the medium spiny neurons converge on
neurons in globus pallidus and s.nigra.(output zone)
All regions of cortex project directly to corpus straitum &
acts as a largest input to basal ganglia.
 Connections of corpus striatum

 Afferent fibers efferent fibers

Corticostriate fibers striatopallidal fibers
Thalamostriate fibers straitonigral fibers
Nigrostriate fibers
Brainstem striatal fibers
Corticostriate fibers

 All parts of cerebral cortex send axons to caudate nucleus and

putamen.
 Each part of cerebral cortex projects to a specific part of
caudate putamen complex.
 Most of the projections are from the cortex of same side.
 The largest input is from sensory motor cortex.
 Glutamate is a neurotransmitter of corticostriate fibers.
Thalamostriate fibers
The interlaminar nuclei of thalamus send large number of
axons to the caudate and putamen.
Nigrostriate fibers
neurons in the substantia nigra send axons to the caudate
nucleus and putamen and liberate dopamine as
neurotransmitter.
Its fibers are inhibitory in function.
Brainstem straital fibers
Ascending fibers from the brainstem end in the caudate
nucleus and putamen
Liberates seratonin as neurotranmitter
These fibes act as inhibitory.
Efferent fibers
Striatopallidal fibers
These fibers pass from caudate nucleus and putamen to
g.pallidus.
neurotransmitter-gama -aminobutyric acid(GABA)
Striatonigral fibers
Fibers pass from caudate nucleus and putamen to the s.nigra.
some fibers have GABA or acetylcholine as neurotransmitters
while others have substance P.
Functions of basal ganglia

1. Integrations of information

2. Controls muscular movements
3. Assists in regulation of voluntry movements and learning of
 motor skills.
4. Helps to prepare for movement.
Functional subdivisions of cortical inputs to
striatum
Cortical areas that are functionally interconnected at the level
of cortex give rise to projections that overlap in straitum
1) Caudate nucleus recieves cortical projections from;
Association cortices control eye movements
Motor areas in frontal lobe
2) Putamen recieves input from
Prim.&sec.somatosensory cortices(parietal lobe)
Pre motor and motor cortices(frontal lobe)
Auditory association areas(temp.lobe)
 ‘Ann graybeil and colleagues’ have shown that regions of different cortical
areas concerned with hand converge within striatum
 Regions with same cortical areas concerned with leg converge in other
sraital bands.
3) Another functional division within the striatum is spatial distribution of
different types of medium spiny neurons.
 Although medium spiny neurons are distributed throughout the striatum,
they occur in clusters of cells called “patches” or in a surrounding “matrix”
of neurochemically distinct cells.
 The cell types are known to differ as well in the sources of their inputs
from the cortex and in the destinations of their projections to other parts
of the basal ganglia.
 Eg;even though most cortical areas project to medium spiny neurons in
both these compartments, limbic areas of the cortex project more heavily
to the patches, whereas motor and somatic sensory areas project
preferentially to the neurons in the matrix
Direct and indirect pathways

The direct pathways projects from the

striatum to the globus pallidus internus.
The medium spiny cells in the striatum are
inhibitory.
They use GABA as a neurotransmitter and
they have a very low spontaneous firing rate.
In order to fire,the m.spiny cells must be
stimulated by the cortex.(Miller,2008)
The g.pallidus internus projects to
thalamus and thalamus sends excitatory
projections to the cortex.
Neurons in the Gpi have a very high
spontaneous firing therefore considered
to be tonically active.
Its neurons are almost always firing.
This activity serves to tonically inhibit the thalamus
resulting in thalamus being unable to excite the
cortex
In this way the basal ganglia can be
considered to function as a type of ‘brake’
upon the cortex.
By stimulating the striatum,the cortex releases
the brake(Mink,1996)
This occurs because the cortical activation of
d.pathway causes medium spiny cells of
striatum to inhibit the firing of cells in Gpi
The indirect pathway involves inhibitory
connections of striatum to the Gpe.
The Gpe has inhibitory connection to the
subthalamic nuclei.
The STN has excitatory connections to
internal segments of Gpi.
 This releases the thalamus from its tonic
inhibition.

As a result,the thalamus excites the

cortex so that behavior is released.
Therefore the activity of indirect pathways
causes the STN to actually increase the tonic
inhibitory activity of Gpi which supresses
behavior.
Significance of pathways
The two pathways presumably operate in
opposite directions.
Activity in the direct pathway causes Gpi to
release inhibition on thalamus and to release
behavior.
Activity of indirect pathways causes STN to
activate Gpi which supresses the thalamic
activity which in turn prevents the release of
behavior.
The direct pathway mediates behavioral release
and indirect pathways mediates behavioral
supression

The direct pathway is thus believed to be

important for releasing wanted movement
and indirect pathway is important for
inhibiting closely related unwanted
movements.
Disorders of basal ganglia

Parkinson’s disease
Wilson’s disease
Chorea
Athetosis
Huntington’s chorea
hemiballismus
Parkinson’s disease

Named after the discoverer ‘James

parkinson’.
It is a progressive disease of unknown cause
associated with degenerationin s.nigra nad
to lesser extent in g.pallidus,putamen and
caudate nucleus.
Cause of disorder in basal ganglia:-
In PD the projections from the subthalamic
nuclei to the striatum are lost.

As a result direct pathway loop is not able to

function normally(Parent & cicchetti,1998).

Direct pathways can no longer perform its

functions of inhibiting Gpi so that the active
Gpi continues tonically to inhibit thalamus.
Because of this massive inhibition on thalamus,
behavior cannot be released.
As a result,it becomes very difficult to start a
movement.
Because starting and stopping movements are
slow,it is difficult to “shift” or switch from one
movement or activity to the other.
In this way brain intention programmes are
interuppted.
Huntington’s disease
Autosomal dominant inherited disease
Occurs often in adult life.
Characterised by chorea and dementia.
Degeneration of GABA secreting,substance p
secreting and acetylcholine secreting neurons
of striatonigral inhibiting pathway.
This results in dopa secreting neurons of s.nigra
becoming overactive so that s.nigral pathaway
inhibits the corpus striatum.
This inhibition produces abnormal
movements seen in disease
Wilson’s disease

This is also known as progressive hepato

lenticular degeneration.
The disease develops due to damage of
lenticular nucleus particularly putamen
Along with all symptoms of parkinsonism
due to degeneration of basal ganglia,there
is degeneration of liver tissues also.
Chorea
This is an abnormal involuntry movement
of extremities and twitching of face(facial
grimacing).
Later muscle groups are involved so that
the patient becomes unable to speak or
swallow.
It results from lesion in caudate nuleus and
putamen.
Athetosis

It consists of slow,sinous,writhing movements

most commonly involving distal segments of
limbs.
Degeneration of g.pallidus occurs with
breakdown of circuitory involving the basal
nuclei and cerebral cortex.
Hemiballismus
This is a form of involuntry movements
confined to one side of body.
Usually involves the proximal extremity
musculature and the limb completely flies
about out of control in all directions.
The lesion occurs in subthalamic nucleus or
its connections
References:
1.Clinical neuroanatomy by Snell
2.Text book of Neuroscience-Dale Purves
3.Subcortical structures &cognition-leonard F.koziol
4.Inderbir singh’s text book of anatomy
5.BD chaurasias human anatomy