MATERIALS SCI

ENCE
MUHAMMAD SYAZWI BIN
MOSMAN
09DEM16F2006
EN. SALIM BIN BACHOK
WHAT IS MATERIALS SCIENCE ?
The stone age, bronze age, iron age and silicon age remind us that th
e history of our civilization goes hand in hand with materials science.
Understanding the behavior of materials has given rise to countless in
novations and breakthroughs ranging from stone tools, which led to th
e discovery of fire in the prehistoric period, to silicon chips and silicon
solar cells in our modern era. In a broad sense, materials science invol
ves studying the synthesis, processing, structure, properties and perfo
rmance of materials. Properties of interest can be mechanical, electric
al, magnetic, optical and quantum mechanical. The outcome of such a
study can directly impact the society in which we live and work, by ben
efiting to industries involved in electronics, communications, medicine,
transportation, manufacturing, recreation, energy and environment.
While the field of materials science has evolved from materials forme
d from metals, ceramics, polymers and their various composites, in re
cent years there has been increasing focus on creating novel nanostr
uctured materials, for instance by taking inspiration from nature. The n
ew fields of nanotechnology and biomaterials are providing materials
scientists with an entirely new palette of molecular, organic, biological
and inorganic building blocks to design and assemble nano-engineere
d materials with unique functionalities. The research and academic pr
ograms in MSE at Penn Engineering reflect these exciting new develo
pments and our goal is to provide students enrolling in our programs
with a broad and multidisciplinary training so that they can be part of t
his materials revolution and contribute to solve some 21st century cha
llenges.
 INDEX OF MATERIALS SCIENCE
2.0 Fundamentals 4.0 In industry
2.1 Structure 4.1 Metal
2.1.1 Atomic structure 4.1.1 Ferrous Metal
2.1.2 Nano structure 4.1.2 Non Ferrous Metal
2.1.3 Micro structure 4.2 Non Metal
2.1.4 Macro structure 4.2.1 Ceramics and glasses
2.2 Crystallography 4.2.2 Composites
2.3 Bonding 4.2.3 Polymers
2.4 Synthesis and processing 4.3 Semiconductors
2.5 Thermodynamics
2.6 Kinetics 5.0 Heat treatment
5.0.1 Quencing
3.0 In research 5.0.2 Temrpering
3.1 Nanomaterials 5.0.3 Annalising
3.2 Biomaterials 5.0.4 Normalising
3.3 Electronic, optical, magnetic
3.4 Computational science,theory 6.0 Reference
2.0 Fundamentals

A material is defined as a substance (most often a solid, but other

condensed phases can be included) that is intended to be used for
certain applications. There are a myriad of materials around us, they
can be found in anything from buildings to spacecraft. Materials can
generally be divided into two classes: crystalline and non-crystalline.
The traditional examples of materials
are metals, semiconductors, ceramics and polymers. New and
advanced materials that are being developed include nanomaterials
and biomaterials, etc. These characteristics, taken together and related
through the laws of thermodynamics and kinetics, govern a
material's microstructure, and thus its properties.
2.1 Structure
As mentioned above, structure is one of the most important compon
ents of the field of materials science. Materials science examines th
e structure of materials from the atomic scale, all the way up to the
macro scale. Characterization is the way materials scientists examin
e the structure of a material. This involves methods such as diffracti
on with X-rays, electrons, or neutrons, and various forms of spectros
copy and chemical analysis such as Raman spectroscopy, energy-di
spersive spectroscopy (EDS), chromatography, thermal analysis, ele
ctron microscope analysis, etc. Structure is studied at various levels,
as detailed below.
2.1.1 Atomic Structure

This deals with the atoms of the materials, and how they a
re arranged to give molecules, crystals, etc. Much of the el
ectrical, magnetic and chemical properties of materials ari
se from this level of structure. The length scales involved a
re in angstroms. The way in which the atoms and molecul
es are bonded and arranged is fundamental to studying th
e properties and behavior of any material.
2.1.2 Nano Structure
Nanostructure deals with objects and structures that are in the 11
00 nm range. In many materials, atoms or molecules agglomerate to
gether to form objects at the nanoscale. This causes many interestin
g electrical, magnetic, optical, and mechanical properties. In describi
ng nanostructures it is necessary to differentiate between the numbe
r of dimensions on the nanoscale. Nanotextured surfaces have one
dimension on the nanoscale, only the thickness of the surface of an
object is between 0.1 and 100 nm. Nanotubes have two dimensions
on the nanoscale, the diameter of the tube is between 0.1 and 100 n
m; its length could be much greater. Finally, spherical nanoparticles
have three dimensions on the nanoscale, the particle is between 0.1
and 100 nm in each spatial dimension. The terms nanoparticles and
ultrafine particles(UFP) often are used synonymously although UFP
can reach into the micrometre range. The term 'nanostructure' is ofte
n used when referring to magnetic technology. Nanoscale structure i
n biology is often called ultrastructure.
Diagram of Nano Structure
2.1.3 Micro Structure
Microstructure is defined as the structure of a prepared surface or th
in foil of material as revealed by a microscope above 25 magnificat
ion. It deals with objects from 100 nm to a few cm. The microstructur
e of a material (which can be broadly classified into metallic, polyme
ric, ceramic and composite) can strongly influence physical propertie
s such as strength, toughness, ductility, hardness, corrosion resistan
ce, high/low temperature behavior, wear resistance, and so on. Most
of the traditional materials (such as metals and ceramics) are micros
tructured.

The manufacture of a perfect crystal of a material is physically impo

ssible. For example, a crystalline material will contain defects such a
s precipitates, grain boundaries (HallPetch relationship), interstitial
atoms, vacancies or substitutional atoms. The microstructure of mat
erials reveals these defects, so that they can be studied.
Diagram of Micro Structure
2.1.4 Macro Structure

Macro structure is the appearance of a material in the scale mil

limeters to meter. It is the structure of the material as seen with
the naked eye.
2.2 Crystallography
Crystallography is the science that examines the arrangement of ato
ms in crystalline solids. Crystallography is a useful tool for materials
scientists. In single crystals, the effects of the crystalline arrangeme
nt of atoms is often easy to see macroscopically, because the natura
l shapes of crystals reflect the atomic structure. Further, physical pro
perties are often controlled by crystalline defects. The understanding
of crystal structures is an important prerequisite for understanding cr
ystallographic defects. Mostly, materials do not occur as a single cry
stal, but in polycrystalline form, as an aggregate of small crystals wit
h different orientations. Because of this, the powder diffraction meth
od, which uses diffraction patterns of polycrystalline samples with a l
arge number of crystals, plays an important role in structural determi
nation. Most materials have a crystalline structure, but some importa
nt materials do not exhibit regular crystal structure.
Diagram of Crystallography
2.3 Bonding
To obtain a full understanding of the material structure and how it rel
ates to its properties, the materials scientist must study how the diffe
rent atoms, ions and molecules are arranged and bonded to each ot
her. This involves the study and use of quantum chemistry or quantu
m physics. Solid-state physics, solid-state chemistry and physical ch
emistry are also involved in the study of bonding and structure.
2.4 Synthesis & Processing
Synthesis and processing involves the creation of a material with the
desired micro-nanostructure. From an engineering standpoint, a mat
erial cannot be used in industry if no economical production method
for it has been developed. Thus, the processing of materials is vital t
o the field of materials science.

Different materials require different processing or synthesis method

s. For example, the processing of metals has historically been very i
mportant and is studied under the branch of materials science name
d physical metallurgy. Also, chemical and physical methods are also
used to synthesize other materials such as polymers, ceramics, thin
films, etc. As of the early 21st century, new methods are being devel
oped to synthesize nanomaterials such as graphene.
2.5 Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is concerned with heat and temperature and their r
elation to energy and work. It defines macroscopic variables, such a
s internal energy, entropy, and pressure, that partly describe a body
of matter or radiation. It states that the behavior of those variables is
subject to general constraints, that are common to all materials, not t
he peculiar properties of particular materials. These general constrai
nts are expressed in the four laws of thermodynamics. Thermodyna
mics describes the bulk behavior of the body, not the microscopic be
haviors of the very large numbers of its microscopic constituents, su
ch as molecules. The behavior of these microscopic particles is des
cribed by, and the laws of thermodynamics are derived from, statisti
cal mechanics.
Diagram of Termodynamics
2.6 Kinetics
Chemical kinetics is the study of the rates at which systems that are
out of equilibrium change under the influence of various forces. Whe
n applied to materials science, it deals with how a material changes
with time (moves from non-equilibrium to equilibrium state) due to a
pplication of a certain field. It details the rate of various processes ev
olving in materials including shape, size, composition and structure.
Diffusion is important in the study of kinetics as this is the most com
mon mechanism by which materials undergo change.

Kinetics is essential in processing of materials because, among othe

r things, it details how the microstructure changes with application of
heat.
DIagram of Kinetics
3.0 In Research
Materials science has received much attention from researchers. In
most universities, many departments ranging from physics to chemi
stry to chemical engineering, along with materials science departme
nts, are involved in materials research. Research in materials scienc
e is vibrant and consists of many avenues. The following list is in no
way exhaustive. It serves only to highlight certain important research
areas.
3.1 Nano Materials
Nanomaterials describe, in principle, materials of which a single unit
is sized (in at least one dimension) between 1 and 1000 nanometers
(109meter) but is usually 1100 nm.
Nanomaterials research takes a materials science-based approach t
o nanotechnology, leveraging advances in materials metrology and
synthesis which have been developed in support of microfabrication
research. Materials with structure at the nanoscale often have uniqu
e optical, electronic, or mechanical properties.
The field of nanomaterials is loosely organized, like the traditional fie
ld of chemistry, into organic (carbon-based) nanomaterials such as f
ullerenes, and inorganic nanomaterials based on other elements, su
ch as silicon. Examples of nanomaterials include fullerenes, carbon
nanotubes, nanocrystals, etc.
Diagram of Nano Materials
3.1 Biomaterials
A biomaterial is any matter, surface, or construct that interacts with b
iological systems. As a science, bio materials is about fifty years old.
[citation needed] The study of biomaterials is called bio materials sci
ence. It has experienced steady and strong growth over its history,
with many companies investing large amounts of money into develo
ping new products. Biomaterials science encompasses elements of
medicine, biology, chemistry, tissue engineering, and materials scien
ce.
Biomaterials can be derived either from nature or synthesized in a la
boratory using a variety of chemical approaches using metallic comp
onents, polymers, bioceramics, or composite materials. They are oft
en used and/or adapted for a medical application, and thus compris
es whole or part of a living structure or biomedical device which perf
orms, augments, or replaces a natural function.
Diagram of Biomaterials
3.3 Electronic, Optical & Magnetic
Semiconductors, metals, and ceramics are used today to form highl
y complex systems, such as integrated electronic circuits, optoelectr
onic devices, and magnetic and optical mass storage media. These
materials form the basis of our modern computing world, and hence
research into these materials is of vital importance.
Semiconductors are a traditional example of these types of material
s. They are materials that have properties that are intermediate betw
een conductors and insulators. Their electrical conductivities are ver
y sensitive to impurity concentrations, and this allows for the use of
doping to achieve desirable electronic properties. Hence, semicondu
ctors form the basis of the traditional computer. This field also includ
es new areas of research such as superconducting materials, spintr
onics, metamaterials, etc. The study of these materials involves kno
wledge of materials science and solid-state physics or condensed m
atter physics.
Diagram of Eletronic, Optical, Magnetic
3.4 Computational Science & Theory
With the increase in computing power, simulating the behavior of ma
terials has become possible. This enables materials scientists to dis
cover properties of materials formerly unknown, as well as to design
new materials. Up until now, new materials were found by time-cons
uming trial and error processes. But, now it is hoped that computatio
nal methods could drastically reduce that time, and allow tailoring m
aterials properties. This involves simulating materials at all length sc
ales, using methods such as density functional theory, molecular dy
namics, etc.
4.0 In Industry
Radical materials advances can drive the creation of new products o
r even new industries, but stable industries also employ materials sc
ientists to make incremental improvements and troubleshoot issues
with currently used materials. Industrial applications of materials sci
ence include materials design, cost-benefit tradeoffs in industrial pro
duction of materials, processing methods (casting, rolling, welding, i
on implantation, crystal growth, thin-film deposition, sintering, glassb
lowing, etc.), and analytic methods (characterization methods such
as electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, calorimetry, nuclear micros
copy (HEFIB), Rutherford backscattering, neutron diffraction, small-
angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), etc.
4.1 Metal
i. Ferrous metal

ii. Non ferrous metal

Put in the simplest terms, ferrous metals are those which contain iro
n, whilst non ferrous metals dont have any iron content. There are,
however, other differences between the two types of metal which ha
ve a strong bearing upon the tasks which they are usually called upo
n to perform.
4.1.1 Ferrous Metal
Mild Steel Carbon content of 0.1 to 0.3% and Iron content of 99.7 9
9.9%. Used for engineering purposes and in general, none specialised
metal products.

Carbon steel Carbon content of 0.6 to 1.4% and Iron content of 98.6 t
o 99.4 %. Used to make cutting tools such as drill bits.

Stainless Steel Made up of Iron, nickel and chromium. Resists stainin

g and corrosion and is therefore used for the likes of cutlery and surgic
al instrumentation.

Cast Iron carbon 2 6% and Iron at 94 to 98%. Very strong but brittle.
Used to manufacture items such as engine blocks and manhole covers.

Wrought Iron Composed of almost 100% iron. Used to make items su

ch as ornamental gates and fencing. Has fallen out of use somewhat.
Diagram of Ferrous Metal
4.1.2 Non Ferrous Metal
Aluminium An alloy of aluminium, copper and manganese. Very lig
htweight and easily worked. Used in aircraft manufacture, window fr
ames and some kitchen ware.

Copper Copper is a natural occurring substance. The fact that it co

nducts heat and electricity means that it is used for wiring, tubing an
d pipe work.

Brass A combination of copper and zinc, usually in the proportions

of 65% to 35% respectively. Is used for ornamental purposes and wi
thin electrical fittings.

Silver Mainly a natural substance, but mixing with copper creates

sterling silver. Used for decorative impact in jewellery and ornament
s, and also to solder different metals together.

Lead Lead is a naturally occurring substance. It is heavy and very

soft and is often used in roofing, in batteries and to make pipes.
Diagram of Non Ferrous Metal
4.2 Non Metal
i. Polymers
ii. Ceramics & Glasses
iii. Composite
There is no rigorous definition of a nonmetal. They show more varia
bility in their properties than metals do. The following are some of th
e chief characteristics of nonmetals. Physically, they largely exist as
monatomic gases, with a few having more substantial (but still open-
packed) diatomic or polyatomic forms, unlike metals, which are nearl
y all solid and close-packed; if solid, they generally have a submetall
ic or dull appearance and are brittle, as opposed to metals, which ar
e lustrous, ductile or malleable; they usually have lower densities th
an metals; are poor conductors of heat and electricity when compar
ed to metals; and have significantly lower melting points and boiling
points than those of metals (with the exception of carbon
4.2.1 Ceramics & Glasses
Another application of material science is the structures of ceramics
and glass typically associated with the most brittle materials. Bondin
g in ceramics and glasses uses covalent and ionic-covalent types wi
th SiO2 (silica or sand) as a fundamental building block. Ceramics a
re as soft as clay or as hard as stone and concrete. Usually, they ar
e crystalline in form. Most glasses contain a metal oxide fused with s
ilica. At high temperatures used to prepare glass, the material is a vi
scous liquid. The structure of glass forms into an amorphous state u
pon cooling. Windowpanes and eyeglasses are important examples.
Fibers of glass are also available. Scratch resistant Corning Gorilla
Glass is a well-known example of the application of materials scienc
e to drastically improve the properties of common components. Dia
mond and carbon in its graphite form are considered to be ceramics.
Diagram of Ceramics & Glasses
4.2.2 Composites
Another application of materials science in industry is making compo
site materials. These are structured materials composed of two or m
ore macroscopic phases. Applications range from structural element
s such as steel-reinforced concrete, to the thermal insulating tiles wh
ich play a key and integral role in NASA's Space Shuttle thermal pro
tection system which is used to protect the surface of the shuttle fro
m the heat of re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere. One example is r
einforced Carbon Carbon (RCC), the light gray material which withst
ands re-entry temperatures up to 1,510 C (2,750 F) and protects t
he Space Shuttle's wing leading edges and nose cap. RCC is a lami
nated composite material made from graphite rayon cloth and impre
gnated with a phenolic resin. After curing at high temperature in an a
utoclave, the laminate is pyrolized to convert the resin to carbon, im
pregnated with furfural alcohol in a vacuum chamber, and cured-pyr
olized to convert the furfuralalcohol to carbon. To provide oxidation r
esistance for reuse ability, the outer layers of the RCC are converted
to silicon carbide.
Diagram of Composites
4.2.3 Polymers
Polymers are chemical compounds made up of a large number of id
entical components linked together like chains. They are an importa
nt part of materials science. Polymers are the raw materials (the resi
ns) used to make what are commonly called plastics and rubber. Pla
stics and rubber are really the final product, created after one or mor
e polymers or additives have been added to a resin during processin
g, which is then shaped into a final form. Plastics which have been a
round, and which are in current widespread use, include polyethylen
e, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene, nylons, poly
esters, acrylics, polyurethanes, and polycarbonates and also rubber
s which have been around are natural rubber, styrene butadiene rub
ber, chloroprene, and butadiene rubber. Plastics are generally classi
fied as commodity, specialty and engineering plastics.
Diagram of Polymers
4.3 Semiconductors
The study of semiconductors is a significant part of materials scienc
e. A semiconductor is a material that has a resistivity between a met
al and insulator. Its electronic properties can be greatly altered throu
gh intentionally introducing impurities or doping. From these semico
nductor materials, things such as diodes, transistors, light-emitting di
odes (LEDs), and analog and digital electric circuits can be built, ma
king them materials of interest in industry. Semiconductor devices h
ave replaced thermionic devices (vacuum tubes) in most application
s. Semiconductor devices are manufactured both as single discrete
devices and as integrated circuits (ICs), which consist of a number
from a few to millionsof devices manufactured and interconnect
ed on a single semiconductor substrate.
Diagram of Semiconductors
5.0 Heat Treatment
Heat treating is a group of industrial and metalworking processes us
ed to alter the physical, and sometimes chemical, properties of a ma
terial. The most common application is metallurgical. Heat treatment
s are also used in the manufacture of many other materials, such as
glass. Heat treatment involves the use of heating or chilling, normall
y to extreme temperatures, to achieve a desired result such as hard
ening or softening of a material. Heat treatment techniques include a
nnealing, case hardening, precipitation strengthening, tempering, no
rmalizing and quenching. It is noteworthy that while the term heat tre
atment applies only to processes where the heating and cooling are
done for the specific purpose of altering properties intentionally, heat
ing and cooling often occur incidentally during other manufacturing p
rocesses such as hot forming or welding.
Diagram of Heat Treatment
5.0.1 Quencing
Quenching is a process of cooling a metal at a rapid rate. This is mo
st often done to produce a martensite transformation. In ferrous allo
ys, this will often produce a harder metal, while non-ferrous alloys wi
ll usually become softer than normal.

To harden by quenching, a metal (usually steel or cast iron) must be

heated above the upper critical temperature and then quickly coole
d. Depending on the alloy and other considerations (such as concer
n for maximum hardness vs. cracking and distortion), cooling may b
e done with forced air or other gases, (such as nitrogen). Liquids ma
y be used, due to their better thermal conductivity, such as oil, water,
a polymer dissolved in water, or a brine.
5.0.2 Temrpering
Untempered martensitic steel, while very hard, is too brittle to be us
eful for most applications. A method for alleviating this problem is cal
led tempering. Most applications require that quenched parts be tem
pered. Tempering consists of heating steel below the lower critical te
mperature, (often from 400 to 1105 F or 205 to 595 C, depending o
n the desired results), to impart some toughness. Higher tempering t
emperatures (may be up to 1,300 F or 700 C, depending on the all
oy and application) are sometimes used to impart further ductility, alt
hough some yield strength is lost.
5.0.3 Annalising
In ferrous alloys, annealing is usually accomplished by heating the
metal beyond the upper critical temperature and then cooling very sl
owly, resulting in the formation of pearlite. In both pure metals and m
any alloys that can not be heat treated, annealing is used to remove
the hardness caused by cold working. The metal is heated to a temp
erature where recrystallization can occur, thereby repairing the defe
cts caused by plastic deformation. In these metals, the rate of coolin
g will usually have little effect. Most non-ferrous alloys that are heat-t
reatable are also annealed to relieve the hardness of cold working.
These may be slowly cooled to allow full precipitation of the constitu
ents and produce a refined microstructure.
5.0.4 Normalising
Normalizing is a technique used to provide uniformity in grain size a
nd composition (equiaxing) throughout an alloy. The term is often us
ed for ferrous alloys that have been austenitized and then cooled in
open air. Normalizing not only produces pearlite, but also martensite
and sometimes bainite, which gives harder and stronger steel, but w
ith less ductility for the same composition than full annealing.
Diagram of Quencing Temrpering Annalis
ing Normalising
Additional Info
Iron alloyed with various proportions of carbon gives low, mid and hi
gh carbon steels. An iron-carbon alloy is only considered steel if the
carbon level is between 0.01% and 2.00%. For the steels, the hardn
ess and tensile strength of the steel is related to the amount of carb
on present, with increasing carbon levels also leading to lower ductili
ty and toughness. Heat treatment processes such as quenching and
tempering can significantly change these properties, however. Cast I
ron is defined as an ironcarbon alloy with more than 2.00% but less
than 6.67% carbon. Stainless steel is defined as a regular steel alloy
with greater than 10% by weight alloying content of Chromium. Nick
el and Molybdenum are typically also found in stainless steels.
6.0 Reference
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_science

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_science#Structure

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_science#Ceramics_and_glas
ses

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_science#Polymers

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_science#Semiconductors

https://science.energy.gov/not-found?item=%2fbes%2fnews-and-res
ources%2freports%2f&user=extranet%5cAnonymous&site=website

https://web.archive.org/web/20100618193936/http://people.ee.duke.
edu/~drsmith/pubs_smith_group/Shelby_APL_%282001%29.pdf
THE END
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