Working Capital Management

Long Term Capital Short Term Capital

Capital Requirements
 Working Capital

• Short term finance involving current assets and current liabilities

• Involve cash flows within one year or one operating cycle of the firm.

Relevance of Working Capital:

• Investment in current assets represents substantial portion of total

investment

• Investment in current assets and the level of current liabilities have to be

geared quickly to changes in sales. Variation of fixed assets and long term
finance vis-à-vis sales is not as direct and close as is the working capital.
 Trade
Debtors

Inventories
a. Raw Materials
b. WIP Current Assets Loans &
Advances
c. Finished goods
d. Others

Cash and
Bank
Balances
 Borrowings
(Short term)
Trade Advances
Commercial Banks
Others

Sundry Creditors Provisions

Current
Liabilities
 Current Asset Cycle

Cash

Raw
Debtors
Materials

Finished Work-In-
Goods Progress
 Concepts of Working Capital

Working Capital

Gross Working Capital = Net Working Capital =

Current Assets Current Assets – Current Liabilities
(Cash, Short-term securities, Current liabilities include creditors,
debtors, bills receivable and bills payable and outstanding
stock) expenses
Factors influencing Working Capital Requirements

• Nature of Business

• Seasonality of operations

• Production policy

• Market conditions

• Conditions of supply
 Nature of Business

Industries Current Assets Fixed Assets

Electricity Generation and 20-30% 70-80%

Distribution

Aluminium, Shipping 30-40% 60-70%

Iron and steel, Basic 40-50% 50-60%

Industrial Chemicals

Tea Plantation 50-60% 40-50%

Cotton Textiles, Sugar 60-70% 30-40%

Edible Oils, Tobacco 70-80% 20-30%

Trading, Construction 80-90% 10-20%

 Level of Current Assets

Conservative or Flexible – Aggressive or Restrictive policy –

CA high CA investment low

• Few production stoppages • May lead to frequent production

stoppages
• Quick delivery to customers
• Delayed delivery to customers
• Stimulates sales
• Loss of sales
 Costs Involved in Current Assets

a. Carrying Costs –

Costs that rise with CA

Cost of financing higher level of CA

b. Shortage Costs –

Costs that fall with CA

Disruption in production schedule, loss of sales and loss of customer
goodwill
Current Assets Financing Policy

Current Assets

Permanent Current
Temporary Current Assets
Assets
 Strategies of Current Asset Financing

Strategies

Long Term financing for Long-Term Financing to

Long-term Financing for
Fixed Assets & PWC & meet fixed asset and
FA & Peak WC
Portion of TWC PWC.
 Operating Cycle and Cash Cycle
Accounts
Payable Period =
Invoice date –
Order payment for
Placed materials

Raw
Cash
materials
received
arrive

Finished
Accounts
goods
sold Inventory
Receivable Period
Period
 Operating Cycle

Receiving cash for

Purchase of raw sale of finished
materials goods

Inventory Period + Accounts Receivable Period

 Cash Cycle

Cash received for

Payment of raw
sale of finished
materials
goods

Operating Cycle – Accounts Payable Period

 Average Inventory
Inventory Period =
(Annual COGS / 365)

Average Accounts Receivable

Accounts Receivable Period =
(Annual Sales/ 365)

Average Accounts Payable

Accounts Payable Period =
(Annual COGS / 365)
Eg 1:
Calculate Inventory Period, Accounts Receivable Period, Accounts Payable
Period, Operating Cycle, Cash Cycle

Balance Sheet Data

Profit & Loss Beginning of End of 2000

Data 2000

Sales 800 Inventory 96 102

COGS 720 Accounts 86 90

Receivable

Accounts 56 60
Payable
1. Inventory Period = Average Inventory / (Annual COGS/365)

= (102 + 96) / 2 = 99 = 50.18 days

(720/365) 1.97

2. Accounts Receivable Period = Average Accounts Receivable / (Sales /365)

= (86 + 90) / 2 = 88 = 40.2 days

(800/365) 2.19

3. Accounts Payable Period = Average Accounts Payable / (COGS / 365)

= (56 + 60) / 2 = 58 = 29.4 days

(720/365) 1.97
Operating Cycle = Inventory Period + Accounts Receivable Period

= 50.2 days + 40.2 days = 90.4 days

Cash Cycle = Operating Cycle – Accounts Payable Period

= 90.4 days – 29.4 days = 61 days

Eg. 2: Financial Information of X Ltd. For the year ended 2001 is given below:

Profit & Loss A/c data Balance Sheet data

(Rs. Mn) Beginning of End of 2001

2001

Sales 80 Inventory 9 12

COGS 56 Accounts 12 16
Receivable

Accounts 7 10
Payable

Calculate Inventory Period, Accounts Receivable Period, Accounts Payable

Period, Operating Cycle, Cash Cycle
Sol.

Inventory Period = Average Inventory / (Annual COGS/365)

= (9 + 12) /2 = 68.4 days
(56/365)

Accounts Receivable Period= Avg. Accounts Receivable / (Annual sales /365)

= (12 + 16) /2 = 63.9 days

(80/365)

Accounts Payable Period = Avg. Accounts Payable / (Annual COGS/365)

= (7 + 10) / 2 = 55.4
(56/365)
Operating Cycle = Inventory Period + Accounts Receivable Period
= 68.4 + 63.9
= 132.3 days

Cash Operating Cycle = Operating Cycle – Accounts Payable Period

= 132.3 – 55.4
= 76.9 days
 Cash Requirement for Working Capital
Estimate the cash requirements using the following two steps:

1. Estimate the cash cost of various current assets required by the firm. The
cash cost of a current assets is:

Value of the current asset

- Profit element, if any, included in the value
- Non-cash charges like depreciation, if any, included in the value

2. Deduct the spontaneous current liabilities from the cash cost of current
assets
(Portion of current asset supported by trade credit and accruals of wages
and expenses are referred to as spontaneous current liabilities)
 Working Capital Financing

Sources of Finance that are used to support Current Assets are as under:

1. Accruals
2. Trade Credit
3. Working Capital Advance by Commercial Banks
4. Regulation of Bank Finance
5. Public Deposits
6. Inter-Corporate Deposits
7. Short-term loans from Financial Institutions
8. Rights Debentures for Working Capital
9. Commercial Paper
10. Factoring
 Accruals

Accruals

Employees Government

Wages Taxes
 Level of
Accruals
Activity

Cost
 Trade Credit

Obtaining Trade Cost of Trade

Credit Credit

Earnings
With discount
Track Record

Liquidity
Without
position of
discount
the firm

Record of
Payment
 Cost of Trade
Credit

30 days Net Net 30 days

Discount given
Cost-Free. if paid
promptly
Net 30 i.e. cost associated beyond the discount period

30 days period

10 days 20 days
Discount Period Non-Discount Period

Cost = Dis X 360

(1-Dis) (Credit Period – Dis Period)
 Problems on Trade Credit

1. What is annual percentage interest cost associated with the following credit
terms?

a. 2/20 net 50

(0.02 / 0.98) X (360 / 50 - 20) = 24.5%

b. 2/15 net 40

(0.02 / 0.98) X (360 / 40 – 15) = 29.4%

c. 1/15 net 30

(0.01 / 0.99) X (360 / 30 - 15) = 24.2%

d. 1/10 net 30

(0.01 / 0.99) X (360 / 30 – 10) = 18.2%

e. 1/10, net 20

(0.01 / 0.99) X (360 / 20 - 10) = 36.4%

f. 2/10, net 45

(0.02 / 0.98) X (360 / 45 - 10) = 20.99%

g. 3/10, net 60

(0.03 / 0.97) X (360 / 60 - 10) = 22.26%

h. 2/15, net45

(0.02 / 0.98) X (360 / 45 - 15) = 24.48%

Working Capital Advance by Commercial Banks

• Application and Processing

• Sanction and Terms and Conditions

• Forms of Bank Finance

– Cash Credits/ Overdrafts
– Purchase/ Discount of Bills
– Letter of Credit
– Loans
• Security

• Margin Amount
Purchase or Discount of Seller Draws
Bills Bill on
Purchaser
On due date,
bank collects
from Purchaser

Purchase
r Accepts

Bank Pays
Seller

Seller
Presents bill
to bank
Maximum Permissible Bank Finance

MPBF

0.75 (CA – CCA) -

0.75(CA - CL) 0.75 (CA) - CL
CL
 Public Deposits

• Cost

Term Interest Rate

1Yr 6-7%
2Yr 7-8%
3Yr 9-10%
 Evaluation

Advantages

1. Procedure is simple
2. No Restrictive Covenants
3. No security is offered
4. Reasonable Cost

Disadvantages

5. Limited quantum of funds

6. Maturity period is relatively short
Advantages from the view point of investors

1. Rate of interest is higher

2. Maturity period is short

Disadvantages

3. No security offered by the company

4. Interest is not exempt from taxation
 Inter-Corporate Deposits

Call Deposits Three-Months Deposits Six-Months Deposits

 Characteristics of Inter-Corporate Deposit Market

• Regulation

• Secrecy

• Personal Contacts
Short-Term Loans from Financial Institutions

Insurance companies offer to manufacturing companies with good track record

Features

1. Totally Unsecured. Given on the strength of a demand Promisory Note

2. Given for 1Yr Period and renewed for two consecutive years later

3. After loan is repaid, company has to wait for atleast 6 months before availing
of fresh loan

4. Interest is payable at quarterly rests

 Commercial Paper

• Short-term
• Unsecured
• Promisory Notes
• Issued by firms with good credit rating

Features of Commercial Paper

1. Maturity Period 90-180 Days

2. Sold at discount and redeemed at Face Value
3. No Secondary Market
 Factoring

• Factor is Financial Institution that manages debts arising from credit sales
• In India only 4 Public Sector Banks allowed to do factoring
– SBI (SBI Factoring and Commercial Services Limited)
– Canara Bank (Canara Bank Factoring Limited)
– PNB
– Allahabad Bank

Features of Factoring Arrangement

 Factor selects
accounts of
clients to
Collects from manage
buyers and
pays balance
amount

Fixes the
credit limit in
consultation
with client

He advances to
the client – 70-
80%.
Charges interest &
Commission

Factor
assumes the
collection
responsibility
Cash and Liquidity Management
 Reasons for holding Cash

●
Cash collected is not exactly same as cash
Transaction Motive disbursed
●
Cash is required as buffer

●
Uncertainty about magnitude and timing of
Precautionary Motive cash inflows and outflows.
●
Cash required to protect against uncertainties

●
Fluctuations in commodity prices, security
Speculative Motive
prices, interest rates and forex rates
• Establish reliable forecasting and reporting systems

• Improve cash collections and disbursements

• Achieve optimal conservation and utilisation of funds

 Contents of the Chapter

• Cash Budgeting

• Long-term Cash Forecasting

• Reports for Control

• Monitoring Collections and Receivables

• Optimal Cash Balance

• Investment of Surplus Funds

• Cash Management Models

 Cash Budgeting

• Estimating Cash Requirements

• Short-term Financing

• Scheduling payments w.r.t Capital Expenditure Projects

• Planning Purchases of Materials

• Developing Credit Policies

• Checking accuracy of long-term forecasts

 Designs of Short-Term Forecast

• One year divided into Quarters or Months

• One Quarter divided into Months

• One Month divided into Weeks

• One Week divided into days

 Receipts and Payments Method

• Expected receipts and payments

• Needs information
o Estimated Sales
o Production Plan
o Purchasing Plan
o Financing Plan
o Capital Expenditure budget
 Sl.No. Items of Cash Receipts Basis of Estimation
and Payments
1. Cash Sales Estimated Sales and its division between Cash
and Credit Sales
2. Collection of Accounts Estimated Sales, its division between Cash and
Receivable Credit Sales and Collection pattern
3. Interest and Dividend Firm’s Portfolio of Securities and Return expected
Receipts from the portfolio
4. Increase in Financing Plan
Loans/Deposits and
Issue of Securities
5. Sale of Assets Proposed disposal of Assets
6. Cash Purchases Estimated Purchases and its division between
Cash and Credit Purchases
7. Payment of Purchases Estimated Purchases, its division between Cash
and Credit Purchases and Terms of Credit
Purchase
Sl.No. Items of Cash Receipts &
Payments
8. Wages & Salaries
9. Manufacturing expenses
10. General, Administration and
Selling Expenses
11. Capital Equipment Purchases
12. Repayment of Loans and
Retirement of Securities
Basis of Estimation
Manpower employed and wages and
salaries structure
Production Plan
Administration and Sales Personnel and
Proposed Sales Promotion and
distribution expenditure
Capital expenditure budget and payment
pattern associated with Capital
Equipment Purchases
Financing Plan
 Deviations from Expected Cash Flows

• Deviation from the actual cash flows and the expected cash flows.

• Result of assumptions made to arrive at the cash flows.

• It would be appropriate to make different sets of assumptions under three

different scenarios

• Pessimistic scenario, Normal Scenario and Optimistic Scenario

• Make Contingency plans accordingly.

 Evaluation of Receipts and Payments Method

Advantages

1. Complete Picture
2. Appropriate tool for day-to-day predictions

Disadvantages

3. Results vary according to collection delays or unforeseen expenses

4. Does not clearly depict important changes in company’s WC movements
relating to inventories and receivables
 Long-Term Cash Forecasting
Adjusted Net Income Method
2009 2010 2011
Source
Net Income After Taxes
Non-Cash Charges
Increase in Borrowings
Sale of Equity Shares
Miscellaneous
USES
Capital Expenditure
Increase in Current Assets
Repayment of borrowings
Dividend Payments
Miscellaneous
Surplus/Deficit
Opening Cash Balance
Closing Cash Balance
 Reports for Control

• Daily Cash Report

• Daily Treasury Report

• Monthly Cash Report

 Cash Collection and Disbursement

Float

Difference between the Cash Balance and the Bank Balance of Cash

Disbursement Float – Cheques issued by company

Firm’s Available Balance > Firm’s Book Balance

Collection Float – Cheques received by company

Firm’s Available Balance < Firm’s Book Balance
 Speeding Up Collections

Customer Company Company deposits Cash

Mails Cheque Receives Chq Cheque Available

Mailing Time Processing Availability Delay

Techniques Used by Companies to Speed up Collections

Lock Boxes Concentration Banking Delaying Payments

 Lock Boxes

Company takes drop box with local post office

Customer asked to drop cheques in this drop box

Reduces
the Mailing
Time

Collecting bank collects cheques directly and deposits in local bank account of customer
Reduces
Processing
Time

Bank account of customer is credited

 Evaluation of Lock Boxes

• Average Number of Daily Payments - 50

• Average Size of Payment - Rs. 8000

• Savings in mailing and processing time - 2days

• Annual Rental for the Lock Box - Rs. 3000

• Bank Charges for operating the Lock Box - Rs. 72000

• Interest Rate - 15%

Increase in company’s collected balance because of lock box
= 50 Items a day X Rs. 8000 Per item X 2 days saved
= Rs. 800000/-

Return on Rs. 800000 @ 15% = Rs. 120000/-

Annual Cost of Lock Box

= Rs. 3000/- (Rental) + Rs. 72000/- (Bank Charges)
= Rs. 75000/-

Total Savings = Rs. 120000 – 75000 = Rs.45000/-

 Concentration Banking

• Customers in a particular area send cheques to the local bank office and not
the Corporate Office.

• On a daily basis, funds from this account are transferred to the Principal
Bank Account.

• Concentration banking when combined with Lock Box will give further better
results.
 Delaying Payments

• Delay payments to Suppliers

• Payments to be done only when they fall due and not before that

• Centralize Disbursements

• Synchronise payments in such a way that payment to be made on receipt

from our company debtors.
 Electronic Data Interchange

• Electronic exchange of information between various parties

• Elimination of Paper Invoices, Paper Cheques, Mailing, Handling and so on.

• Seller sends electronic bill to buyer and latter authorises his bank to make
payment and the bank transfers funds electronically.

• Float management will improve.

 Optimal Cash Balance

Trans
action
Cost

Total Cost

Oppo
rtunity
Cost
 Investment of Surplus Funds

Investment Portfolio Earning Interest

Ready Cash Segment Controllable Cash Segment

Free Cash Segment

High liquidity

Taxes, dividend, interest payments, repayments

 Criteria for Evaluating Investment Instruments

• Safety

• Liquidity

• Yield

• Maturity
 Investment Options

1. Fixed Deposit with Banks

2. Treasury Bills
– 91days, 182 days, 364days
– No explicit interest rate
– Sold at discount and redeemed at par
3. Mutual Fund Schemes
– Equity Schemes
– Balanced Schemes
– Debt Schemes
4. Commercial Paper
– Firms issue
– Maturity date of 90-180 days
– Sold at discount and redeemed at par
5. Certificate of Deposit

Negotiable receipt of funds deposited with bank

Negotiable
Come with explicit rate of interest

Advantages

High rate of interest

Good secondary market
Risk-free
Tailor-made denominations and maturities
6. Inter-corporate Deposits
Call deposits
Three-month deposits
Six-month Deposits

7. Ready Forwards

8. Bill Discounting
Cash Management Models

Cash Budget

Surplus

Deficit
Marketable Securities Cash Holdings
 Baumol Model
• Proposed by William J.Baumol
• Applies Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) concept to determine cash conversion size
which in turn influences

Model is explained with the following equation:

C = √(2 bT /I)

C = Amount of Marketable Securities converted into cash per order

I = Interest Rate earned per planning period on investment in Marketable Securities
T = Projected Cash Requirements during the planning period
TC = Sum of Conversion and holding costs.

TC = I (C/2) + b (T/C)
Interest Income Conversion
Foregone Costs
Eg:
1. Zeta requires Rs. 1.5 Mn cash for meeting its transaction needs over the
next 3months

2. To meet the projected cash needs, Zeta can sell its marketable securities in
any of the five lot sizes: 100000/-, 200000/-, 300000/-, 400000/- and
500000/-.

3. Zeta can earn 16% annual yield on its marketable securities i.e. for 3
months, interest is 4%.

4. Conversion costs are Rs. 500/- per transaction.

5. Cash payments are made evenly over the 3months planning period.

6. What is total Cost of Ordering and Holding?

T = 1.5Mn
b = 500
I = 4%

C = √ (2 bT/I)

C = √ 2 X 500 X 1500000 / 0.04

= 193649/-

This means that if the marketable securities are sold in lots of Rs. 200000/-, it
would minimise the Total Cost.
 Miller & Orr Model

• Extension of Baumal Model

• Assumes that changes in cash balance over a given period are random in
size and direction.
• As the number of periods increases, the cash balance changes from a
normal distribution

• Answers the following two question:

• When should the transfers be effected between marketable securities and

cash?
• What should be the magnitude of these transfers?
• Upward changes in cash balance are allowed till the cash balance reaches
an ‘Upper Control Limit’.

• On reaching this point, the cash balance is reduced to ‘Return Point’

• On the other hand, once the balance touches ‘Lower Control Limit’, enough
Marketable Securities are disposed to restore the cash balance to its
‘Return Point’

• Lower Control Point is fixed by the Management, RP and UL have been

derived by Miller and Orr with a view to minimising the total ordering and
holding costs.
 RP = ³√[(3b σ² / 4I ) ] + LL

UL = 3 RP – 2LL

RP = Return Point
B = Fixed Cost Per Order for converting Marketable securities into cash
I = Daily interest rate earned on Marketable Securities
σ² = Variance of daily changes in the expected cash balance
LL = Lower Control Limit
UL = Upper control Limit