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Faal Indra
Faal Indra
Chemical Senses
Figure 15.1
Anatomy of a Taste Bud
Figure 15.2
Influence of Other Sensations on Taste
Figure 15.3
Physiology of Smell
Inactive Active
Depolarization of
olfactory receptor
cell membrane
triggers action
potentials in axon
Cytoplasm of receptor
Figure 15.4
Olfactory pathway
Eyelashes
Project from the free margin of each eyelid
Initiate reflex blinking
Figure 15.5b
Conjunctiva
Figure 15.6
Extrinsic Eye Muscles
Figure 15.7a, b
Summary of Cranial Nerves and Muscle Actions
Figure 15.7c
Structure of the Eyeball
Figure 15.8a
Fibrous Tunic
Figure 15.9
Controlled amount of light entering the eye
Figure 15.10a
The Retina: Ganglion Cells and the Optic Disc
(a) (b)
Figure 15.10b
The Retina: Photoreceptors
Rods:
Respond to dim light
Are used for peripheral vision
Cones:
Respond to bright light
Have high-acuity color vision
Are found in the macula lutea
Are concentrated in the fovea centralis
Blood Supply to the Retina
Small vessels radiate out from the optic disc and can
be seen with an ophthalmoscope
Inner Chambers and Fluids
The lens separates the internal eye into anterior and
posterior segments
The posterior segment is filled with a clear gel
called vitreous humor that:
Transmits light
Supports the posterior surface of the lens
Holds the neural retina firmly against the
pigmented layer
Contributes to intraocular pressure
Anterior Segment
Aqueous humor
A plasmalike fluid that fills the anterior segment
Drains via the canal of Schlemm
Figure 15.12
Formation and drainage of aqueous humor
Aqueous humor is
formed by a
capillary network in
the ciliary body
Drains into the canal
of Schlemm, and
eventually enters the
blood
Lens
A biconvex, transparent, flexible, avascular structure
that:
Allows precise focusing of light onto the retina
Is composed of epithelium and lens fibers
Lens epithelium anterior cells that differentiate
into lens fibers
Lens fibers cells filled with the transparent protein
crystallin
With age, the lens becomes more compact and dense
and loses its elasticity
Mechanism of accommodation
Figure 15.14
Refraction and Lenses
Figure 15.16
Focusing Light on the Retina
Light from a
distance needs
little adjustment
for proper
focusing
Far point of
vision the
distance beyond
which the lens
does not need to
change shape to
focus (20 ft.)
Figure 15.17a
Focusing for Close Vision
Figure 15.7b
Problems of Refraction
Figure 15.18
Lens refrractions
1
55.5 D
18X10 3
Photoreception:
Functional Anatomy of Photoreceptors
Figure 15.19
Rods
Functional characteristics
Sensitive to dim light and best suited for night
vision
Absorb all wavelengths of visible light
Perceived input is in gray tones only
Sum of visual input from many rods feeds into a
single ganglion cell
Results in fuzzy and indistinct images
Cones
Functional characteristics
Need bright light for activation (have low
sensitivity)
Have pigments that furnish a vividly colored view
Each cone synapses with a single ganglion cell
Vision is detailed and has high resolution
Cones and Rods
Figure 15.10a
Properties of Rod Vision and Cone Vision
Chemistry of Visual Pigments
Position of
retinene1 (R) in the
rod disk membrane
Chemistry of Visual Pigments
Figure 15.20
Ionic Basis of Photoreceptor Potentials
Figure 15.21
Excitation of Cones
Figure 15.22
Sequence phototransduction in rods and cones
Figure 15.23
Visual Pathways
V1 Primary visual
cortex
V2, V3, VP Continued
processing,
larger visual fields
V3A Motion
V4v Unknown
MT/V5 Motion; control of
movement
LO Recognition of
large objects
V7 Unknown
V8 Color vision
Transection of visual pathways
On-center fields
Stimulated by light hitting the center of the field
Inhibited by light hitting the periphery of the field
Figure 15.24
Thalamic Processing
Non CB male: XY
CB male: xY
Non CB female: XX
CB female : xx
CB carrier female: xX
Type of color blindness
Prevalence
Type Denomination
Men Women
Monochromacy Achromatopsia 0.00003%
Protanopia 1.01% 0.02%
Dichromacy Deuteranopia 1.27% 0.01%
Tritanopia 0.0001%
Protanomaly 1.08% 0.03%
Anomalous
Deuteranomaly 4.63% 0.36%
Trichromacy
Tritanomaly 0.0002%
Monochromatism/
Normal Achromatopsia
Normal Complete red CB
Protanopia
1 2 3 4
5 6 7
Color blindness is not disease
The three parts of the ear are the inner, outer, and
middle ear
The outer and middle ear are involved with hearing
The inner ear functions in both hearing and
equilibrium
Receptors for hearing and balance:
Respond to separate stimuli
Are activated independently
The Ear: Hearing and Balance
Figure 15.25a
Outer Ear
Figure 15.25b
Ear Ossicles
Figure 15.26
Inner Ear
Bony labyrinth
Tortuous channels worming their way through the temporal
bone
Contains the vestibule, the cochlea, and the semicircular
canals
Filled with perilymph
Membranous labyrinth
Series of membranous sacs within the bony labyrinth
Filled with a potassium-rich fluid
Inner Ear
Figure 15.27
The Vestibule
Figure 15.27
The Semicircular Canals
Figure 15.27
The Cochlea
The narrow, stiff end of the basilar membrane nearest the oval
window vibrates best with high-frequency pitches.
The wide, flexible end of the basilar membrane near the
helicotrema vibrates best with low-frequency pitches
The Cochlea
Figure 15.28
Sound and Mechanisms of Hearing
Sound is:
A pressure disturbance (alternating areas of high
and low pressure) originating from a vibrating
object
Composed of areas of rarefaction and compression
Represented by a sine wave in wavelength,
frequency, and amplitude
Properties of Sound
Figure 15.29
Transmission of Sound to the Inner Ear
Figure 15.31
Resonance of the Basilar Membrane
Figure 15.32
The Organ of Corti
Bending cilia:
Opens mechanically gated ion channels
Causes a graded potential and the release of a
neurotransmitter (probably glutamate)
Figure 15.28c
Deflection of the basilar membrane
Figure 15.34
Auditory Processing
Figure 15.35
Effect of Gravity on Utricular Receptor Cells
Figure 15.36
Crista Ampullaris and Dynamic Equilibrium
Figure 15.37b
Activating Crista Ampullaris Receptors
Figure 15.37d
Role of the otolith organs
otoliths
The hairs (kinocilium and
stereocilia) of the receptor stereocilia
hair cells protrude into an
overlying gelatinous sheet, kinocilium
whose movement displaces
the hairs changes in hair
cell potential.
The otoliths (ear stones):
crystals of calcium carbonate
suspended within the
gelatinous layer, making it
heavier giving more
inertia than the surrounding
fluid
Role of the otolith organs tilt the head
Tilt the head in any direction other than vertical (other than
straight up and down) the hairs are bent in the direction of
the tilt because of the gravitational force exerted on the top-
heavy gelatinous layer produces depolarizing or
hyperpolarizing receptor potentials depending on the tilt of the
head.
The CNS thus receives different patterns of neural activity
depending on head position with respect to gravity.
Role of the otolith organs - walking