Digitization For Beginners 1

Chapter 1

Terminology/Basic Questions Related To GIS

What is GIS
Shapefile & Grids
Vector & Raster
DEM & TIN
Coordinate Systems
Classification of Coordinate Systems
Other File Formats
Raster or Vector ?
DEM or TIN ?
Other Basic Questions
Digitization For Beginners 2

1.1.What is GIS ?

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File formats

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GIS : A geographic information system (GIS), also known as a

geographical information system, is an information system for capturing,
storing, analyzing, managing and presenting data which are spatially
referenced (linked to location).
Digitization For Beginners 3

1.2.Shape file & Grids

Coverage : In geographic information systems, a coverage is a mapping

of one aspect of data in space. It represents a "domain" (the universe of
extent) in terms of characteristics expressing a range of values. Aerial
photography, land cover data, and digital elevation models are all
considered coverage data. Below are two types of coverage which are
used in GIS for representation of informations.

Shapefile : A "shapefile" is commonly refers to a collection of files with

".shp", ".shx", ".dbf", and other extensions on a common prefix name
(e.g., "lakes.*"). The actual shapefile relates specifically to files with the
".shp" extension, however this file alone is incomplete for distribution, as
the other supporting files are required.

Shapefiles spatially describe geometries: points, polylines, and polygons.

These, for example, could represent water wells, rivers, and lakes,
respectively. Each item may also have attributes that describe the items,
such as the name or temperature.

Grids : In cartography, any network of parallel and perpendicular lines

superimposed on a map and used for reference is collectively called
as grid. These grids are usually referred to by the map projection or
coordinate system they represent.
Digitization For Beginners 4

1.3.DEM & TIN

DEM : A digital elevation model (DEM) is a digital representation of

ground surface topography or terrain. It is also widely known as a digital
terrain model (DTM). A DEM can be represented as a raster (a grid of
squares) or as a triangular irregular network. DEMs are commonly
built using remote sensing techniques, however, they may also be
built from land surveying

TIN : A triangulated irregular network (TIN) is a digital data structure used

in a geographic information system (GIS) for the representation of a surface.
A TIN is a vector based representation of the physical land surface or sea
bottom, made up of irregularly distributed nodes and lines with three
dimensional coordinates (x,y, and z) that are arranged in a network of
non-overlapping triangles. TINs are often derived from the elevation data
of a rasterized digital elevation model (DEM).

An advantage of using a TIN over a DEM in mapping and analysis is that

the points of a TIN are distributed variably based on an algorithm that
determines which points are most necessary to an accurate representation
of the terrain. Data input is therefore flexible and fewer points need to be
stored than in a DEM with regularly distributed points. While a TIN may be
less suited than a DEM raster for certain kinds of GIS applications,
such as analysis of a surface's slope and aspect, but it have the
advantage of being able to portray terrain in three dimensions.

Three-dimensional visualizations are readily created by rendering of the

triangular facets. In regions where there is little variation in surface height,
the points may be widely spaced whereas in areas of more intense variation
in height the point density is increased.
Digitization For Beginners
1.4.Vector & Raster
VECTOR : In a GIS, geographical
features are often expressed as
vectors, by considering those features
as geometrical shapes.
Vector
A Vector Image
Comparison
A Raster Image
5
RASTER : A raster data type
is, in essence, any type of digital
image. Anyone who is familiar
with digital photography will
recognize the pixel as the
smallest individual unit of an
image.
A combination of these pixels will
create an image, distinct from the
Raster commonly used scalable vector
graphics which are the basis of
the vector model. While a digital
image is concerned with the
output as representation of reality,
in a photograph or art transferred
to computer, the raster data type
will reflect an abstraction of
reality.
Raster data type consists of rows
and columns of cells, with each
cell storing a single value. Raster
data can be images (raster
images) with each pixel (or cell)
containing a color value.
Additional values recorded for
each cell may be a discrete value,
such as land use, a continuous
value, such as temperature, or a
null value if no data is available.
Digitization For Beginners 6

1.5.Coordinate System

1.5.1.GEOGRAPHIC COORDINATE SYSTEM

Map information in a GIS must be manipulated so that it registers, or fits, with
information gathered from other maps. Before the digital data can be analyzed,
they must undergone manipulations like projection and coordinate conversions that
in turn will integrate them into a GIS.

The earth can be represented by various models, (collectively known as

Geographic Coordinate System), each of which may provide a different set of
coordinates (e.g., latitude, longitude, elevation) for any given point on the earth's
surface. The simplest model is to assume the earth as a perfect sphere.

Projection is a fundamental component of map making. A projection is a

mathematical means of transferring information from a model of the Earth, which
represents a three-dimensional curved surface, to a two-dimensional medium
paper or a computer screen. Different projections are used for different types of
maps because each projection particularly suits certain uses. For example, a
projection that accurately represents the shapes of the continents will distort their
relative sizes.

Since much of the information in a GIS comes from existing maps, a GIS uses the
processing power of the computer to transform digital information, gathered from
sources with different projections and/or different coordinate systems, to a
common projection and coordinate system. For images, this process is called
rectification.
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1.5.Coordinate System

1.5.2.PROJECTED COORDINATE SYSTEM

A projected coordinate system is a flat, two-dimensional representation of the
Earth. It is based on a sphere or spheroid geographic coordinate system, but it
uses linear units of measure for coordinates, so that calculations of distance and
area are easily done in terms of those same units.

The latitude and longitude coordinates are converted to x, y coordinates on the flat
projection. The x coordinate is usually the eastward direction of a point, and the y
coordinate is usually the northward direction of a point. The center line that runs
east and west is referred to as the x axis, and the center line that runs north and
south is referred to as the y axis.

The intersection of the x and y axes is the origin and usually has a coordinate of
(0,0). The values above the x axis are positive, and the values below the x axis are
negative. The lines parallel to the x axis are equidistant from each other. The
values to the right of the y axis are positive, and the values to the left of the y axis
are negative. The lines parallel to the y axis are equidistant.

Mathematical formulas are used to convert a three-dimensional geographic

coordinate system to a two-dimensional flat projected coordinate system. The
transformation is referred to as a map projection. Map projections usually are
classified by the projection surface used, such as conic, cylindrical, and planar
surfaces. Depending on the projection used, different spatial properties will appear
distorted. Projections are designed to minimize the distortion of one or two of the
data's characteristics, yet the distance, area, shape, direction, or a combination of
these properties might not be accurate representations of the data that is being
modeled. There are several types of projections available. While most map
projections attempt to preserve some accuracy of the spatial properties, there are
others that attempt to minimize overall distortion instead, such as the Robinson
projection. The most common types of map projections include: (See Page 12)
Digitization For Beginners 8

1.6.Classification of Coordinate Systems

Coordinate System used in GIS

Geographic Coordinate System

Continental,County,Solar etc. Groups

Names like Everest,European etc.

Projected Coordinate System

UTM,NAD etc. Groups

Names like EMPC,ETRS etc.

Custom Projection
 Digitization For Beginners
1.7.Other File Formats
.shp shape format; the feature
geometry itself
.shx shape index format; a
positional index of the feature geometry
to allow seeking forwards and
backwards quickly
.dbf attribute format; columnar
attributes for each shape, in dBase III
format
In each of the .shp, .shx, and .dbf files,
the shapes in each file correspond to
each other in sequence. That is, the first
record in the .shp file corresponds to the
first record in the .shx and .dbf files, and
so on.
Geodatabase:A geo-database represents
geographic features and attributes that
are stored inside a Relational Database
Management System (RDMS).
There are two types of geodatabases -
Personal and Enterprise. The personal
geodatabase in fact is in the format of
Microsoft ACCESS (.mdb); Enterprise
geodatabases are hosted in server-
based DBMS such as SQL Server,
Oracle, or IBM DB2.
9
GPX : The Global Positioning System (GPS) is
a satellite-based navigation system made up of
a network of 24 satellites placed into orbit by
the U.S. Department of Defense. GPS was
originally intended for military applications, but
in the 1980s, the government made the system
available for civilian use. GPS works in any
weather conditions, anywhere in the world, 24
hours a day. There are no subscription fees or
setup charges to use GPS. GPS satellites
circle the earth twice a day in a very precise
orbit and transmit signal information to earth.
GPS receivers take this information and use
triangulation to calculate the user's exact
location. Essentially, the GPS receiver
compares the time a signal was transmitted
by a satellite with the time it was received.
The time difference tells the GPS receiver
how far away the satellite is. Now, with
distance measurements from a few more
satellites, the receiver can determine the
user's position and display it on the unit's
electronic map. GPS readings can be
retrieved as GPX file.
KML : KML is a file format used to display
geographic data in an Earth browser, such
as Google Earth, Google Maps, and Google
Maps for mobile. KML uses a tag-based
structure with nested elements and attributes
and is based on the XML standard.
Digitization For Beginners 10

1.8.RASTER or VECTOR ?

Raster data sets record a value for all points in the area covered which may require
more storage space than representing data in a vector format that can store data
only where needed.
Raster data also allows easy implementation of overlay operations, which are more
difficult with vector data.
Vector data can be displayed as vector graphics used on traditional maps, whereas
raster data will appear as an image that, depending on the resolution of the raster
file, may have a blocky appearance for object boundaries.
Vector data can be easier to register, scale, and re-project. This can simplify
combining vector layers from different sources. Vector data are more compatible
with relational database environment. They can be part of a relational table as a
normal column and processes using a multitude of operators.
The file size for vector data is usually much smaller for storage and sharing than
raster data. Image or raster data can be 10 to 100 times larger than vector data
depending on the resolution.
Another advantage of vector data is it can be easily updated and maintained. For
example, a new highway is added. The raster image will have to be completely
reproduced, but the vector data, "roads," can be easily updated by adding the
missing road segment.

Same differences remain when you compare shapefile with gridfiles.

Remember, shape file is a vector and grid file is a raster.

My Tip :Use vector data for representing cities, rivers, villages, forest
etc. where precision is important and when precision is not important
use raster ( example :classification, contours, bathymetry maps etc.)
Digitization For Beginners 11

1.9.DEM or TIN ?

A triangulated irregular
A digital elevation model (DEM)
network (TIN) is a digital data
is a digital representation of
structure used in a geographic
ground surface topography or
information system (GIS) for
terrain. It is also widely known as
the representation of a
a digital terrain model (DTM). A
surface. A TIN is a vector
DEM can be represented as a
based representation of the
raster (a grid of squares) or as a
physical land surface or sea
triangular irregular network.
bottom, made up of irregularly
distributed nodes and lines
with three dimensional
coordinates (x,y, and z) that
are arranged in a network of
nonoverlapping triangles.

DEMs are commonly built using TINs are often derived from
remote sensing techniques, however, the elevation data of a
they may also be built from land rasterized digital elevation
surveying. model (DEM).

TIN are distributed variably based

DEM are distributed regularly and
on an algorithm that determines
hence they are heavy
which points are most necessary
to an accurate representation of
the terrain and hence they are
light.

DEM are more suitable than TIN TINs are suitable in portraying
for analysis of a surfaces slope terrain in three dimensions.
and aspect.

My Tip :To represent elevation use DEM and to represent Surface

Topography (terrains) use TIN
Digitization For Beginners 12

1.10.Other Basic Questions

1.What is the importance of having a GIS?

GIS is the resource for gathering and presenting information on geographical

data, such as natural resources, bodies of water, roads, etc., in order to benefit
the planning and development of cities, counties, industries, and various
government entities. GIS can benefit business industry and economy by aiding
employers in finding the perfect geographical location for their company or
industry, thus bringing new jobs to that area and to the state. GIS can also
assist emergency management teams in locating correct addresses, as well as
determining how many residential structures are within a fire district. The
possibilities of GIS are endless.

Source : Learon Dalby &Richard Chaney s Article Published in http://www.gis.state.ar.us

Digitization For Beginners 13

1.10.Basic Questions
2.What is the difference between GIS and a map ?
"GIS is the application that compares the tabular data and
illustrates the spatial relationships. It allows for selective analysis
and informed decisions. The end results of the various analyses
are usually illustrated as 'maps.' However, the layman mistakes
GIS as simply mapmaking."
"A map is generally static and might be thought of as a
cartographic output. Once created, the map does not provide
any additional information. Conversely, GIS is an integrated
system that enables a user to ask numerous questions of a
database and visualize the answers."

3.What are some non-map generation uses of GIS ?

"GIS can be used to create charts and graphs of databases to

verify the quality of the database. These processes can also be
performed in standard spreadsheet packages. Ordinarily, GIS
is used to map the database so one can visualize the location
of events. Generally speaking, answers acquired from map
analysis performed in a GIS could be concluded through
standard database queries. However, the answers may not be
as easy to interpret."
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1.10.1.Data Formats

4.What is a geoTIFF?

"The geoTIFF file format embeds image registration information

directly into the raster file. GeoTIFF is an industry-neutral raster
file format widely used and recognized by all of the major GIS
software vendors.

5.What is datum?

"A datum is a mathematical model used to determine overall

height of continental land masses like North America. A common
datum is the North American Datum of 1983, more commonly
known as NAD83."

6.Give examples of Raster files ?

Arc Digitized Raster Graphics (ADRG).

Band Interleaved by Line (BIL)

Digital Elevation Model (DEM).

PC Paintbrush Exchange (PCX).

Spatial Data Transfer Standard (SDTS).

Tagged Image File Format (TIFF).

Source : http://data.geocomm.com
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1.10.1.Data Formats

7.What is Arc Digitized Raster 9.What is Digital Elevation

Graphics (ADRG) ? Model (DEM) ?
ADRG is a format used by the US DEM is a raster format used by
military to store raster images of
the USGS to record elevation
paper maps. information. Unlike other raster file
formats, DEM cells do not
8.What is Band Interleaved by represent color brightness values,
Line (BIL) ? but rather the elevations of points
on the earths surface.
Band Interleaved by Pixel (BIP),
and Band Sequential (BSQ). BIL,
BIP, and BSQ are formats 10.What is PC Paintbrush
produced by remote-sensing Exchange (PCX) ?
systems. The primary difference
among them is the technique PCX is a common raster format
used to store brightness values produced by most scanners and
captured simultaneously in each personal computer (PC) drawing
of several colors or spectral programs.
bands.
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1.10.1.Data Formats

11.What is Spatial Data Transfer Standard (SDTS) ?

SDTS is a general-purpose format designed to transfer geographic
information. One SDTS variant is the raster profile, designed as a
standard format for transferring raster data. However, this protocol
has not as yet been finalized.

12.What is Tagged Image File Format (TIFF) ?

Like PCX, TIFF is a common raster format produced by PC drawing
programs and scanners.

13.Give examples of Vector files ?

ARC/INFO Coverages

Autodesks Data Interchange File (DXF)

AutoCAD" Drawing Files (DWG)

PC Digital Line Graphs (DLG)

Spatial Data Transfer System (SDTS)

Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing Files (TIGER).

Vector Product Format (VPF)

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1.10.1.Data Formats

14.What is ARC/INFO Coverage ?

An ARC/INFO "coverage" is a set of internal binary files used by

ARC/INFO, a GIS program. This file format is proprietary and not readily
usable by other programs.

15.What is Autodesks Data Interchange File (DXF) Format ?

DXF is probably the most widely used vector data transfer format, and a file
in DXF format offers some very strong advantages. It contains very
complete display information, and almost every graphics program can read
it. However, there are several different ways to store attribute information in
DXF and to link DXF entities to external attributes. Because there are no
attribute standards, many programs that claim to read DXF files still do not
import attribute information properly.

16.What is AutoCAD" Drawing Files (DWG) ?

DWG is the internal, proprietary format used in AutoCAD software,

which is a computer-aided design/drafting (CAD) program. Despite its
proprietary nature, AutoCAD can convert any DWG file to a DXF file
(described below) without loss of graphic information. As with DXF files,
there are a number of ways to store attribute information in DWG files.
The emerging standard is one that uses Extended Entity Data (EED) to
link attributes, but many others are possible. However, the lack of one
standard for linking attributes can cause problems when data is
transferred between systems.
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1.10.1.Data Formats

17.What is Digital Line Graphs (DLG) ?

DLG, a transfer format used by the US Geological Survey (USGS), depicts

vector information portrayed on printed paper maps. It carries very accurate
coordinate information and sophisticated feature-classification information
but no other attribute data. The DLG standard is significant because the
USGS and other US government agencies have used it to publish large
numbers of digital maps.

18.What is Spatial Data Transfer System (SDTS) ?

SDTS, a new transfer format developed by the US government, was

designed to handle all types of geographic data. SDTS can be either binary
or ASCII but is generally binary. Virtually all geographic concepts can be
encoded in SDTS, including coordinate information, complex attribute
information, and display information. This versatility causes a corresponding
increase in complexity. To simplify things, several standard subsets of SDTS
have been adopted. The first of these, the Topological Vector Profile (TVP),
is used to store certain types of vector maps. SDTS can also be used for
raster information. Not much data is available in SDTS format at this time,
nor do many software systems support it.
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1.10.1.Data Formats

19.What is Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and

Referencing Files (TIGER) ?

TIGER is an ASCII transfer format used by the US Census Bureau to

store the street maps constructed for the 1990 census. It contains
complete geographic coordinates and is line, not polygon, based
(although polygons can be constructed from its attribute information). The
most important attributes include street name and address information.
TIGER does not contain display information. Maps of the entire US are
available in TIGER format.

20.What is Vector Product Format (VPF) ?

VPF is a binary format used by the US Defense Mapping Agency. It is

well documented and can be used as an internal format and as a transfer
format. It carries geographic and attribute information but no display data.
VPF files are sometimes referred to as VMAP products. The Digital Chart
of the World (DCW) is published in this format.