INTRODUCTION

This field trip on engineering geology is basically based on aspect of

practical learning. Along with theoretical knowledge one should also be
familiar with real observation in order to understand and know it
properly. At every step, an engineer has to encounter earth and earth, as a
material or as construction site. So it proves the importance of geology
to civil engineering professionals.
The trip was really fruitful to us and certainly we got a lot of knowledge
about the geological aspects of Malekhu area its location and geological
diversity of that area.
For the study of geological features we used different tools for our use.
In each and every location it was located and noted in our notebook
before proceeding our study. We visually observed differnt rocks in our
field. In order to extract the rock sample from field we used hammer.
On other hand during dip angle measurement we used Brunton
compass.
 Importance of engineering geology
Engineering geology gives the idea of site selection, proper
investigation
Provides eligibility of the area for particular type of

engineering project.
It gives idea about the geological hazards that may occurs

It enhances the safe and sustainable development projects.

It makes the engineering works more economical.

It provides solution to the geological hazards.

 RIVER CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY
Appearance of river channel and the study of its external feature
are known as morphology of river channel. In most cases the
tendency of river is to flow towards the sea. The highland or the
mountainous regions from where the river originates is called its
head region. From the head region, the river flows through
gradually decreasing slopes and then through almost flat lands
before it actually empties into the sea. The place where a stream
or river empties into the sea is called its mouth.
In this field visit we realized about the mendering system of
river.
 Types of river
A.Straight River
It follows straight path
Erosion is in straight path.
River velocity is high
Erosion >Deposition
Have narrow end
Found in higher Himalaya region of Nepal
Example: Arun River, Bhotekoshi River

Merits:
Hydropower establishment (high gradient) and more fruitful because of higher
head.
Width is narrow so damn making is easier
Short span bridges
Demerits
Erosion rate is higher
Unavailability of construction materials
B. Mendering River
The river follows zigzag path
Erosion & deposition rate is more or less equal
Found in moderate relief area
Velocity of river is medium
Found in lesser and sub Himalaya (siwaliks) region of Nepal
Example: Karnali River, Budigandaki River & Trishuli
Merits:
Availability of construction materials
Suitability for hydropower construction (high gradient)
Suitable for reservoirs
Demerits
Difficulty in bridge making
Erosional and depositional activities cause problem in engineering activities
C.Braided River
Low velocity of river
Bifurcated into many channel.
Energy level of river is extremely low
Rate of deposition is higher than erosin.
Found in Terai area of Nepal (low lime area)
Example: Narayani River

Merits
Easy availability of construction materials

Demerits
Channel shifting on seasonal change is high
 Geological agents are those agents that brings
change in the earths landforms. E.g. Glacier, water, wind, etc.
River Valley: It is an elongated lowland between ranges of
mountains, hills, or other uplands, having a river running
along the bottom.
Gorge: A gorge is typically any narrow or deep valley between
tall slabs of steep rock on either side and has a source of water
flowing through the bottom of the valley. .
Pot Holes : Potholes are cylindrical holes drilled into the bed
of a river that vary in depth & diameter from a few centimeters
to several meters.
Rock Island : Rock island is a landmass of rock within a river
that sits above water.
Oxbow lake: An Oxbow lake is a U-shaped body of water
that forms when a wide meander from the main stem of a
river is cut off, creating a free-standing body of water.
Waterfall : A waterfall is a place where water flows over a vertical
drop or a series of drops in the course of a stream or river.
Point Bar: A point bar is a depositional feature made of
alluvium that accumulates on the inside bend of streams
and rivers below the slip-off slope. Point bars are found in
abundance in mature or meandering streams.
Channel Bars : An elevated region of sediment (such as
sand or gravel) that has been deposited by the flow which is
common in braided rivers .
Flood plain : An area of low-lying ground adjacent to a river,
formed mainly of river sediments and subject to flooding.
Terrace deposit : It is a step-like landform which consists of a
flat or gently sloping geomorphic surface, called a tread, that is
typically bounded one side by a steeper ascending slope.
Alluvial fan : An alluvial fan is a triangle-shaped deposit of
gravel, sand, and even smaller pieces of sediment, such as silt.
This sediment is called alluvium. Alluvial fans are usually created
as flowing water interacts with mountains, hills, or the steep
walls of canyons.
Delta :It is a landform that forms from deposition of sediment
carried by a river as the flow leaves its mouth and enters slower-
moving or standing water. This occurs where a river enters an
ocean, sea, estuary, lake, reservoir, or (more rarely) another river
that cannot transport away the supplied sediment.
 Study of rocks in field
Rock is defined as naturally forming hard and compact
solid aggregate, assemblage of minerals forming earths
crust
Minerals can be defined as the naturally occurring
inorganic substance with fixed composition
 Types of rock
1. Igneous Rock
formed by cooling of magma
Random orientation of minerals and self interlocked.
No bedding and foliation plane.
Massive and hard
E.g.: granite, basalt etc
2. Sedimentary rock
made of the weathered remains of other rocks that have been
eroded and later deposited as sediment in layers
Random orientation of minerals and sediments and cemented by
fine matrix
Have bedding planes
E.g. conglomerate, dolomite, siltstone etc
3. Metamorphic rock
are formed by subjecting any rock typesedimentary rock,
igneous rock or another older metamorphic rockto different
temperature and pressure conditions than those in which the
original rock was formed
Preferred orientation of minerals
Have foliation plane
Have rock cleavage
E.g. marble, gneiss, quartzite, slate, phyllite etc
Rock cycle
Slate
Metamorphic
Foliation and slaty
cleavage

Limestone
Sedimentary
Bedding plane and
no cleavage
Phyllite
Metamorphic
Foliation and slaty
cleavage

Granite
Igneous
Massive interlocking
No foliation or bedding or
cleavage
Quartzite
Metamorphic
Preferred orientation of minerals
Granulose structure

Gneiss
Metamorphic
Foliation
Crystalline and gneissosity
cleavage
Schist
Metamorphic
Foliation
Schistosity cleavage
 FOLDS
When rock deforms in a ductile manner
instead of fracturing, they may bend or
fold and the resulting structures are called
folds.
Folds may develop in any type of rock and
maybe of any shape and geometry ranging
from simple up arch bends or down arch
curvatures. The process of folding is very
slow geological process.
 Parts of folds

a. Hinge: The limbs intersect at tightest part of fold called hinge.

Line of maximum curvature from where amount and direction of
dip changes.
b. Axial plane: The plane passing through fold axis or hinge of
fold.
c. Limbs/flanks: It is sides of folds.
Classification of folds
Basically folds can be of two types according to their form:
a. Anticline: Generally convex upward and old rocks found in core and young rocks in
flangs..
b. Syncline: Generally convex downward and younger rocks found in core and older rock
in core.
1.Based on the position of axial plane
a. Symmetrical fold: Both limbs have same amount of dip and has
vertical axial plane.
b. Asymmetrical fold: Limbs have different amount of dip and axial
plane is inclined.
c. Isoclined fold:- Limbs dipped in same direction at same angles.
d. Overturned fold: Limbs dipping in same direction with different angles
e. Recumbent fold: Axial plane is horizontal
f. Chevron fold: - Fold with no curvature in its hinge and straight sided limbs that form a zigzag
pattern
2.Based on inter limb angle
a. Open/gentle fold: -Folds having inter limb angle more than
70
b. Closed fold: - Folds having inter limb angle between 30-70
c. Tight fold: - folds having inter limb angle less than 30
d. Isoclinal fold: - have zero inter limb angles
3) Based on hinge line and axial surface
a. Horizontal normal: the orientation of axial surface is vertical and
orientation of hinge line is horizontal
b. Horizontal inclined: the orientation of axial surface is dipping
and orientation of hinge line is horizontal
c. Plunging normal: the orientation of axial surface is vertical and
orientation of hinge line is plunging
d. Plunging inclined: the orientation of axial surface is dipping and
orientation of hinge line is plunging
e. Vertical: the orientation of axial surface is vertical and orientation
of hinge line is also vertical
 Recognisation of fold in field
a. Local or small scale folds are directly observed in cut slope during
the excavation
b. By measuring the attitude of beds
c. Large scale folds are recognized in field by plotting the attitude in
the map and their cross sections.
 Engineering significance of
fold
Faults developed in the area of core are important for civil engineering
because these structure make the work very complicated. If not
investigated thoroughly project standing through a folded rock may
prove to be uneconomical or unsafe.
Presence of fold will influence the design, stability and economy of
structure
In flanks and core of the fold the compressive stress is induced
whereas in hinge area tensile stress is induced. So these area are very
vulnerable for engineering construction
Some layer may be repeated along the alignment or one or more can
be encountered unexpectedly. If the unexpected layer are of
undesirable nature then it may affect the time, stability and cost of the
project
 Graded Bedding
The term grading is applied to
individual beds or lamina used to
describe a progressive change in
grain size from base to the top of a
unit.
The grain size within a graded bed
ranges from coarser at the bottom
to finer at the top (normal grading)
and if the bed contains finer at the
bottom to coarser at the top then it
is term as Reverse grading.
 Fault
Introduction
Types of faults
Effect of faults
identification
Introduction
Any brittle deformation induce fracture where there is movement
There are two side of non vertical fault. They are hanging wall & Foot wall
Hanging wall occur above the fault plane & foot wall occur bleow
Types of fault
Fault can be classified into generally based on the
Geometry &
genetic
On the basis of geometry
Dip slip fault
Strike slip fault
oblique fault
Dip slip fault
This type of fault in which the movement Is mainly parallel to the dip
surface
Strike slip fault
The dominant displace is horizontal & parallel to strike.
Oblique fault
A fault which have component of dip slip & component of strike slip
Vertical fault
The fault plane is 90 with horizontal surface
In this type of fault the foot wall and hanging wall can not be separated.
Based on genetic
Normal fault
Reverse fault
Thrust fault
Normal fault
Hanging wall move downward relative to foot wall
Extension of crust occur
Large scale fault are associated with fault block mauntain
Reverse fault
Hanging wall move upward relative to foot wall
Shortening of crust occur
Strong compressional force
Thrust fault
Fault plane less then 40
Low angle reverse fault
Thrust bring older rock sequence over the younger
Effect of fault
It changes the elevation of ground
Causes most earthquake
Identification
Presence of hot water spring
Repetition of some strata against normal order of superposition
Omission if strata where they are normally expected
Direct observation
Attitude: Attitude can be simply defined as 3-D orientation
of any geological structure such as bed, joint, fault. It is defined
by their strike, dip and dip direction.
Components of Attitude:

1. Strike
The strike line of bed, fault, or any planar structure is imaginary line
representing the intersection of that feature with horizontal plane. It is given as
quadrantal bearing or in azimuth bearing.
N-S Strike Line E-W strike Line Strike inclined at certain angle to north

N-S strike line E-W strike line Strike line inclined

at certain angle
2. Dip or Dip amount
Dip or dip angle or dip amount is defined as the acute angle made by any
geological plane and horizontal plane. Its value may range from 0 to 90.
It gives the maximum inclination of the geological plane.

3. Dip Direction
It is the direction of inclination of geological planes. It is always at
right angles to the horizontal.
There are two different kinds of dip True dip and apparent dip.
The steepest or maximum angle made by the top surface of inclined
rock with horizontal i.e. true dip.
The inclination from a any other direction than that of true dip is
called apparent dip. This value is always less than the true dip
 Geological Compass:

The instrument used to measure the geological feature of

a geological structure is a geological compass. It is the
combination of general magnetic compass and
clinometers. Inclination is measured by clinometers.

There are following types of geological compasses:

1. Clinometer Compass
2. Brunton Compass
3. Clar Compass
4. Digital Compass
Brunton compass:
It consists of sprit level and can measure bearing and inclination
with relatively less error.
THANK YOU