ANATOMY OF MUSCULOSKELETAL

AND INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEMS

BY:MIHRETU J.
The musculoskeletal system includes:

Skeletal muscles and their tendons

Bones

Cartilages

Joints and their ligaments

Development of musculoskeletal system
In general, the skeletal system develops from paraxial
and lateral plate (parietal layer) mesoderm and from
neural crest.

As the notochord and neural tube form, the

intraembryonic mesoderm lateral to these structures
thickens to form two longitudinal columns of paraxial
mesoderm.
Crossection of chick embryo
at the level of head (A) and
trunk (B)
1. notochord (green)
2. paraxial mesoderm
(yellow)
3. intermediate
mesoderm (red)
4. lateral plate mesoderm
I. somatic mesoderm
(purple)
II. splanchnic mesoderm
(blue)
 During the 3rd wk ,the paraxial mesoderm forms into
balls of mesoderm paired either side of the neural
groove called somites.
Different regions of the somite differentiate into
1. Sclerotome- ventromedial part -forms vertebral
column
2. Dermomyotome- dorsolateral part -forms dermis
and muscle
 Early somites towards the rostral end begins to
segment forming the first somite.

The paraxial region in the head will remain

unsegmented.

Somites are then sequentially added caudally in

pairs.
First pairs of somites appear on 20th day.
3 to 4 somites per day cranio-caudaly.
 By the 5th wk-44 somites
4 occipital-fuse to form occipital bone and other
structures
8 cervical
12 thoracic
5 lumbar
7 sacral
8-10 coccygeal
 First occipital pair and Last 7 pairs disappear at 4th
wk.
Somites ( a segmented series of blocks on each side
of neural tube) from paraxial mesoderm forms:
Vertebral column and ribs
Musculature of axial skeleton
Body wall
head
 Mesenchymal cells between cranial and caudal half
of sclerotome form intervertebral disc (annulus
fibrosus)

Remnant of notochord forms annulus pulposus

The somatic layer of lateral plate mesoderm forms:

Pelvic girdle

Pectoral girdle and sternum

Long bones of limbs

 Neural crest cells form mesoderm of head-which forms
bones of face and skull.
Facial and cranial bones develop through
intramembraneous ossification (mesenchyme to bone).
Occipital somites form neurocranium having
membranous (flat cranial vault) and cartilaginous
(irregular basicranium) parts.
First and second pharyngeal arches form
viscerocranium(facial skeleton).
Skeleton of the head and
face
Mesenchyme from neural
crest (blue)
paraxial mesoderm
(somites and
somitomeres) (red), and
lateral plate mesoderm
(yellow).
1. Intramembranous ossification
The mesenchyme condenses and becomes highly
vascular.
some cells differentiate into osteoblasts (bone-forming
cells) and begin to deposit unmineralized matrix-osteoid.
Calcium phosphate is then deposited in the osteoid
tissue as it is organized into bone.
Bone osteoblasts are trapped in the matrix and become
osteocytes.
2. Endochondral ossification
Forms the bones of the limbs and girdles, with the
exception of part of the clavicle.

The axial (vertebral column and ribs) skeleton is also

formed through the above ossification.

Most of the endochondral bones of the limb are long

bones.

Their development begins as mesenchymal cells

condense.
 Chondrocytes differentiate within the mesenchyme and

begin to secrete Collagen type II and Proteoglycans.

A hyaline cartilage model is formed in the mesenchyme.

Then a primary ossification center appears in the

diaphysis.

Chondrocytes (cartilage cells) increase in size

(hypertrophy), the matrix becomes calcified, and the cells

die.
 A thin layer of bone is deposited under the
perichondrium surrounding the diaphysis.
Thus, the perichondrium becomes the periosteum.
Invasion by vascular connective tissue from blood vessels
surrounding the periosteum also breaks up the cartilage.
Some invading cells differentiate into hemopoietic cells,
blood cells, of the bone marrow.
Secondary ossification center appears in the diaphysis.
A. Mesenchyme cells begin to condense and differentiate into
chondrocytes.
B. Chondrocytes form a cartilaginous model of the prospective bone.
C,D. Blood vessels invade the center of the cartilaginous model, bringing
osteoblasts (black cells) and restricting proliferating chondrocytic cells to
the ends (epiphyses) of the bones. Chondrocytes toward the shaft undergo
hypertrophy and apoptosis as they mineralize the surrounding matrix.
 Development of Muscular System
The entire muscle of the body develops from
mesoderm except muscle of iris which develops from
the ectoderm of the optic cups.

Skeletal muscle-from paraxial mesoderm, which

forms somites from the occipital to the sacral regions
and somitomeres in the head.
 Smooth muscle differentiates from visceral
splanchnic mesoderm surrounding the gut and its
derivatives and from ectoderm (pupillary, mammary
gland, and sweat gland muscles).

Cardiac muscle is derived from visceral splanchnic

mesoderm surrounding the heart tube.
 The myotome of the somites forms the muscles of
the trunk.

also gives rise to the musculature of the limbs and

tongue

The facial, masticatory, and laryngeal muscles arise

from unsegmented paraxial(head) mesoderm.

Shortly after formation of the somatic myotome, the

myotome splits into a dorsal epimere and ventral
hypomere.
 The epimere forms the deep epaxial muscles of the
back, which are innervated by the dorsal ramus of
the spinal nerve.

In contrast, the hypomere forms the hypaxial

muscles of the lateral and ventral body wall in the
thorax and abdomen, which are innervated by the
ventral ramus of the spinal nerve.
 Resegmentation of the sclerotomes.
occipital somites fuse to form the occipital
bone of the skull base.
Eight cervical somites develop in the embryo,
but these somites form only seven cervical
sclerotomes.
This is explained by the fact that the
sclerotome of the 1st cervical somite is lost
as it fuses with the caudal half of the 4th
occipital sclerotome and, therefore,
contributes to the base of the skull.
 The caudal half of the
1st cervical sclerotome then
fuses with the cranial half
of the 2nd cervical sclerotome
to form the 1st cervical
vertebra (the atlas).
even though there are seven
cervical vertebrae, there are
eight cervical spinal nerves
 Development of the limbs
Cells of somites migrate to form precursors of limb bud
but retains nerves from segments of origin.
By the end of 4th wk:
Limb buds outpocket from ventral body wall
Derived from somatic layer of lateral plate mesoderm
Upper limb buds appear first
Lower limb buds appear 2 days later
Mesenchyme in bud condenses
 At 6 th wk first cartilage model appears

At 7th wk first limb muscle at base of limb bud

Ectoderm at the distal border of the limb thickens

and forms the apical ectodermal ridge (AER).

In 6-week-old embryos, the terminal portion

of the limb buds becomes flattened to form the hand-

and footplates
 At 28 day
The upper limb buds
appear as swellings on
the ventrolateral body
wall.
The lower limb buds
are not as well
developed.
 At 32 Day
The upper limb
buds are paddle
shaped and the
lower limb buds
are flipper-like.
 during the seventh week of gestation, the limbs
rotate in opposite directions.

The upper limb rotates 90 laterally, so that the

extensor muscles lie on the lateral and posterior
surface, and the thumbs lie laterally,

lower limb rotates 90 degrees medially, placing the

extensor muscles on the anterior surface and the big
toe medially.
 The integumentary system overview
Integument or cutaneous layerskin

Integumentary system-skin and its appendages (the

hairs, nails, sweat and sebaceous glands).

The skin

The largest organ of the body-15 to 20%

Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium

Has two distinct layers differing in origin and structure

 Embryology of the Integumentary System
The Skin
derived from surface ectoderm and its underlying
mesenchyme.
1. Epidermis-superficial epithelial tissue-surface
ectoderm.
2. Dermis-deeper layer-dense, irregular connective
tissue derived from mesenchyme.
 The embryonic skin at 4 to 5 weeks consists of a
single layer of surface ectoderm overlying the
mesoderm.

The layer of surface ectodermal cells proliferate and

form a layer of squamous epithelium, the periderm,
and a basal (germinative) layer.
 The cells of the periderm continually undergo
keratinization and desquamation and are replaced by
cells arising from the basal layer until approximately
the 21st week.

Thereafter, the periderm disappears and the stratum

corneum forms.
 The exfoliated peridermal cells form part of the
white greasy substance-vernix caseosa-that covers
the fetal skin.

Later, the vernix contains sebum.

It protects the developing skin from constant

exposure to amniotic fluid and facilitates birth of the
fetus.
A, At 4 weeks. B, At 7 weeks. C, At 11 weeks.
 Proliferation of cells in the stratum germinativum forms
epidermal ridges-extends into the developing dermis.

These ridges begin to appear in embryos at 10 weeks and

are permanently established by 17 weeks.

The ridges produce grooves on the surface of the palms

and the soles, including the digits (fingers and toes).

The pattern that develops is determined genetically-

fingerprints in criminal investigations
Dermal papillae- projections of the dermis
Epidermal ridges -evaginations of the epidermis
 Late in the embryonic period, neural crest cells
migrate into the mesenchyme of the developing
dermis and differentiate into melanoblasts.

Later these cells migrate to the dermoepidermal

junction and differentiate into melanocytes
 The dermis develops from mesenchyme, which is derived
from the mesoderm (mostly from the somatic layer of
lateral mesoderm but some of it is derived from the
dermatomes of the somites )
By 11 weeks, the mesenchymal cells have begun to
produce collagenous and elastic connective tissue fibers.
As the epidermal ridges form, the dermis projects into
the epidermis, forming dermal ridges that interdigitate
with the epidermal ridges.
 Microscopic Structure of the Skin

Thick skin-covers the palms and soles

lacks hair follicles, arrector muscles of hairs, and

sebaceous glands, but it has sweat glands.

Thin skin-covers most of the rest of the body

it contains hair follicles, arrector muscles of hairs,

sebaceous glands, and sweat glands.
 Four types of cells
1. Keratinocytes deepest, produce keratin (tough fibrous
protein)
2. Melanocytes - make dark skin pigment melanin
3. Merkel cells mechanoreceptors that resemble pale-
staining keratinocytes-located in the basal epidermal
layer
4. Langerhans cells macrophage-like dendritic cells-most
clearly seen in the spinous layer
 The epidermis consists of four layers of
keratinocytes, five layers in thick skin

1. Stratum basale-a single layer of basophilic columnar

or cuboidal cells on the basement membrane at the
dermal-epidermal junction.

characterized by intense mitotic activity and is

responsible for constant production of epidermal
cells together with stratum spinosum.
2. Stratum spinosum-the thickest epidermal layer
Have tonofilaments that resist tension in areas
subjected to continuous friction and pressure
3. Stratum granulosum-consists of 35 layers of
flattened polygonal cells (keratinocytes)
producing keratin
4. Stratum lucidum-only in thick skin
5. Stratum corneum-consists of 1520 layers of
flattened, anucleated keratinized cells
 Some skin disease
Most cancers of the skin derive from cells of the basal or
spinous layers basal cell carcinomas and squamous cell
carcinomas.

Malignant melanoma is an invasive tumor of

melanocytes

psoriasis-an increase in the number of proliferating cells

in the stratum basale and the stratum spinosum.
 Dermis
supports and binds the epidermis to the subcutaneous
tissue (hypodermis).

Its thickness varies according to the region of the body.

has many projections (dermal papillae) that interdigitate

with projections (epidermal pegs or ridges).

Dermal papillae are more numerous in skin that is

subjected to frequent pressure.
 The dermis contains two layers
1. The outermost papillary layer
Thinner layer composed of loose connective tissue
constitutes the major part of the dermal papillae
bind the dermis to the epidermis because it has type vii
collagen
1. The deeper reticular layer
Thicker layer composed of irregular dense connective
tissue (mainly bundles of type I collagen), and has
more fibers and fewer cells than the papillary layer.
A network of elastic fibers is also present, providing
elasticity to the skin.
 Subcutaneous Tissue
also called the hypodermis or superficial fascia

consists of loose connective tissue that binds the skin

loosely to the subjacent organs, making it possible
for the skin to slide over them.

An extensive vascular supply in the subcutaneous

layer promotes rapid uptake of insulin or drugs
injected into this tissue.
 Vessels & Sensory Receptors
The connective tissue of the skin contains a rich
network of blood and lymphatic vessels.
Two major plexuses
Subpapillary plexus- between the papillary and
reticular dermal layers
supplies the more superficial dermal structures, the
dermal papillae and the epidermis.
sends branches into the dermal papillae and supplies
below the epidermis.
Deep dermal plexus- at the interface between
hypodermis and dermis.
It nourishes the hypodermis and the structures located
within the deeper portions of the dermis.
 The dermal vasculature has also a thermoregulatory role.
the skin functions as an extensive receiver for certain stimuli
from the environment
1. Tactile discs-epidermal tactile cells-receptors for light touch.
2. Free nerve endings in the papillary dermis and lower
epidermal layers
Primarily temperature, pain, and itching, but also as tactile
receptors.
3. Root hair plexuses, a web of sensory fibers surrounding the
bases of hair follicles in the reticular dermis that detects
movements of the hairs.
 encapsulated receptors are tactile mechanoreceptors:

1. Tactile corpuscles (Meissner corpuscles) are elliptical

structures, perpendicular to the epidermis in the dermal
papillae and papillary layer of the fingertips, palms and
soles.
They detect light touch.

2. Lamellated (Pacinian) corpuscles are large oval structures,

approximately, found deep in the reticular dermis or
hypodermis, with an outer capsule and 15 to 50 thin,
concentric lamellae of flat Schwann-type cells and
collagen surrounding a highly branched, unmyelinated
axon.
3. Lamellated corpuscles are specialized for sensing coarse
touch, pressure (sustained touch), and vibrations.