Presentation on Reactive Power

Compensation
AC Generation

The elementary AC generator (Figure 1) consists of a conductor, or loop of wire in

a magnetic field that is produced by an electromagnet. The two ends of the loop
are connected to slip rings, and they are in contact with two brushes. When the
loop rotates it cuts magnetic lines of force, first in one direction and then the
other

Figure 1
Development of a Sine-Wave Output
At the instant the loop is in the vertical position (Figure 2, 00), the coil sides are
moving parallel to the field and do not cut magnetic lines of force. In this
instant, there is no voltage induced in the loop. As the coil rotates in a counter-
clockwise direction, the coil sides will cut the magnetic lines of force in
opposite directions. The direction of the induced voltages depends on the
direction of movement of the coil.

The induced voltages add in series, making slip ring X (Figure 1) positive (+) and
slip ring Y (Figure 1) negative (-). The potential across resistor R will cause a
current to flow from Y to X through the resistor. This current will increase until it
reaches a maximum value when the coil is horizontal to the magnetic lines of
force (Figure 2, 90o). The horizontal coil is moving perpendicular to the field and
is cutting the greatest number of magnetic lines of force. As the coil continues to
turn, the voltage and current induced decrease until they reach zero, where the
coil is again in the vertical position (Figure 2, 180o). In the other half revolution,
an equal voltage is produced except that the polarity is reversed (Figure 2, 270o,
360o). The current flow through R is now from X to Y (Figure 1).
Figure 2 Developing A sine Wave Voltage
AC Generation Analysis

The output voltage of an AC generator can be expressed in two ways. One is

graphically by use of a sine wave (Figure 3). The second way is algebraically by
the equation e = Emax sin t, which will be covered later .

Figure 3
When a voltage is produced by an AC generator, the resulting current varies
in step with the voltage. As the generator coil rotates 360, the output voltage
goes through one complete cycle. In one cycle, the voltage increases from
zero to Emax in one direction, decreases to zero, increases to Emax in the
opposite direction (negative Emax), and then decreases to zero again. The
value of Emax occurs at 90 and is referred to as peak voltage. The time it takes
for the generator to complete one cycle is called the period, and the number
of cycles per second is called the frequency (measured in hertz).

There are six basic equations that are used to convert a value of AC voltage or
current to another value, as listed below.

1. Average value = peak value x 0.637

2. Effective value (RMS) = peak value x 0.707
3. Peak value = average value x 1.57
4. Effective value (RMS) = average value x 1.11
5. Peak value = effective value (RMS) x 1.414
6. Average value = effective (RMS) x 0.9
Phase Angle

Phase angle is the fraction of a cycle, in degrees, that has gone by

since a voltage or current has passed through a given value. The
given value is normally zero. Referring back to Figure 3, take point 1
as the starting point or zero phase. The phase at Point 2 is 30,
Point 3 is 60, Point 4 is 90, and so on, until Point 13 where the
phase is 360, or zero. A term more commonly used is phase
difference. The phase difference can be used to describe two
different voltages that have the same frequency, which pass
through zero values in the same direction at different times. In
Figure 5, the angles along the axis indicate the phases of voltages
e1 and e2 at any point in time. At 120, e1 passes through the zero
value, which is 60 ahead of e2 (e2 equals zero at 180). The voltage
e1 is said to lead e2 by 60 electrical degrees, or it can be said that
e2 lags e1 by 60 electrical degrees.
 Figure 5
Phase difference is also used to compare two different currents or a
current and a voltage. If the phase difference between two currents, two
voltages, or a voltage and a current is zero degrees, they are said to be "in-
phase." If the phase difference is an amount other than zero, they are said
to be "out-of-phase."
 Voltage Calculations
Equation (a) is a mathematical representation of the voltage
associated with any particular orientation of a coil (inductor).
e = E max sin (a)
where
e = induced EMF
E max = maximum induced EMF
= angle from reference (degrees or radians)

The maximum induced voltage can also be called peak voltage Ep. If (t) is the time in
which the coil turns through the angle (), then the angular velocity () of the coil is equal
to /t and is expressed in units of radians/sec. Equation (1) is the mathematical
representation of the angular velocity.
= t (1)
= angular velocity (radians/sec)
t = time to turn through the angle from reference (sec)
= angle from reference (radians)
Using substitution laws, a relationship between the voltage induced, the maximum
induced voltage, and the angular velocity can be expressed. Equation (1) is the
mathematical representation of the relationship between the voltage induced, the
maximum voltage, and the angular velocity, and is equal to the output of an AC Generator.
e = E max sin (t)
Current Calculations

Maximum induced current is calculated in a similar fashion. Equation below is a

mathematical representation of the relationship between the maximum induced
current and the angular velocity.
i = Imax sin (t)
Frequency Calculations

The frequency of an alternating voltage or current can be related directly to the

angular velocity of a rotating coil. The units of angular velocity are radians per
second, and 2 radians is a full revolution. A radian is an angle that subtends an
arc equal to the radius of a circle. One radian equals 57.3 degrees. One cycle of
the sine wave is generated when the coil rotates 2 radians. Equation is the
mathematical relationship between frequency (f) and the angular velocity () in
an AC circuit.
= 2f
where
= angular velocity (radians/sec)
f = frequency (HZ)
Basic AC Reactive Components
Inductance
Any device relying on magnetism or magnetic fields to operate is a form
of inductor. Motors, generators, transformers, and coils are inductors.
The use of an inductor in a circuit can cause current and voltage to
become out-of-phase and inefficient unless corrected.

Inductive Reactance ( XL)

In an inductive AC circuit, the current is continually changing and is
continuously inducing an EMF. Because this EMF opposes the continuous
change in the flowing current, its effect is measured in ohms. This opposition
of the inductance to the flow of an alternating current is called inductive
reactance (XL). Equation is the mathematical representation of the current
flowing in a circuit that contains only inductive reactance.
I = E/XL , where
I = effective current (A)
XL = inductive reactance ()
E = effective voltage across the reactance (V)
The value of XL in any circuit is dependent on the inductance of the circuit
and on the rate at which the current is changing through the circuit. This rate
of change depends on the frequency of the applied voltage. Equation is the
mathematical representation for XL.
XL= 2fL
 where
= 3.14
f = frequency (Hertz)
L = inductance (Henries)
Voltage and Current Phase Relationship in an Inductive Circuit
As previously stated, any change in current in a coil (either a rise or a fall) causes
a corresponding change of the magnetic flux around the coil. Because the
current changes at its maximum rate when it is going through its zero value at
90 (point b on Figure 1) and 270 (point d), the flux change is also the greatest
at those times. Consequently, the self-induced EMF in the coil is at its maximum
(or minimum) value at these points, as shown in Figure 1. Because the current is
not changing at the point when it is going through its peak value at 0 (point a),
180 (point c), and 360 (point e), the flux change is zero at those times.
Therefore, the self-induced EMF in the coil is at its zero value at these points.
According to Lenzs Law ,the induced voltage always opposes the change in
current. Referring to Figure 1, with the current at its maximum negative
value (point a), the induced EMF is at a zero value and falling. Thus, when
the current rises in a positive direction (point a to point c), the induced EMF
is of opposite polarity to the applied voltage and opposes the rise in
current. Notice that as the current passes through its zero value (point b)
the induced voltage reaches its maximum negative value. With the current
now at its maximum positive value (point c), the induced EMF is at a zero
value and rising. As the current is falling toward its zero value at 180 (point
c to point d), the induced EMF is of the same polarity as the current and
tends to keep the current from falling. When the current reaches a zero
value, the induced EMF is at its maximum positive value. Later, when the
current is increasing from zero to its maximum negative value at 360 (point
d to point e), the induced voltage is of the opposite polarity as the current
and tends to keep the current from increasing in the negative direction.
Thus, the induced EMF can be seen to lag the current by 90.
The value of the self-induced EMF varies as a sine wave and lags the current
by 90, as shown in Figure . The applied voltage must be equal and opposite
to the self-induced EMF at all times; therefore, the current lags the applied
voltage by 90 in a purely inductive circuit

If the applied voltage (E) is represented by a vector rotating in a counterclockwise

direction (Figure b), then the current can be expressed as a vector that is lagging
the applied voltage by 90. Diagrams of this type are referred to as phasor
diagrams.
Capacitance
There are many natural causes of capacitance in AC power circuits, such as
transmission lines, fluorescent lighting, and computer monitors. Normally,
these are counteracted by the inductors previously discussed. However, where
capacitors greatly outnumber inductive devices, we must calculate the
amount of capacitance to add or subtract from an AC circuit by artificial
means.

Capacitors
The variation of an alternating
voltage applied to a capacitor,
the charge on the capacitor, and
the current flowing through the
capacitor are represented by
. Figure .
The current flow in a circuit containing capacitance depends on the rate at
which the voltage changes. The current flow in Figure 3 is greatest at points a,
c, and e. At these points, the voltage is changing at its maximum rate (i.e.,
passing through zero). Between points a and b, the voltage and charge are
increasing, and the current flow is into the capacitor, but decreasing in value.
At point b, the capacitor is fully charged, and the current is zero. From points b
to c, the voltage and charge are decreasing as the capacitor discharges, and its
current flows in a direction opposite to the voltage. From points c to d, the
capacitor begins to charge in the opposite direction, and the voltage and
current are again in the same direction

At point d, the capacitor is fully charged, and the current flow is again
zero. From points d to e, the capacitor discharges, and the flow of current
is opposite to the voltage. Figure 3 shows the current leading the applied
voltage by 90. In any purely capacitive circuit, current leads applied
voltage by 90
Capacitive Reactance
Capacitive reactance is the opposition by a capacitor or a capacitive circuit to the
flow of current. The current flowing in a capacitive circuit is directly proportional
to the capacitance and to the rate at which the applied voltage is changing. The
rate at which the applied voltage is changing is determined by the frequency of
the supply; therefore, if the frequency of the capacitance of a given circuit is
increased, the current flow will increase. It can also be said that if the frequency
or capacitance is increased, the opposition to current flow decreases; therefore,
capacitive reactance, which is the opposition to current flow, is inversely
proportional to frequency and capacitance. Capacitive reactance XC, is measured
in ohms, as is inductive reactance. Equation is a mathematical representation for
capacitive reactance.
X c = 1/2fc
where
f = frequency (Hz)
= 3.14
C = capacitance (farads)
Equation is the mathematical representation for the current that flows in a
circuit with only capacitive reactance.

I = E/XC
Impedance
No circuit is without some resistance, whether desired or not. Resistive
and reactive components in an AC circuit oppose current flow. The total
opposition to current flow in a circuit depends on its resistance, its
reactance, and the phase relationships between them. Impedance is
defined as the total opposition to current flow in a circuit. Equation is the
mathematical representation for the magnitude of impedance in an AC
circuit.
The relationship between resistance, reactance, and impedance is shown in
Figure

The current through a certain resistance is always in phase with the applied
voltage. Resistance is shown on the zero axis. The current through an inductor lags
applied voltage by 90; inductive reactance is shown along the 90 axis. Current
through a capacitor leads applied voltage by 90; capacitive reactance is shown
along the -90 axis. Net reactance in an AC circuit is the difference between
inductive and capacitive reactance. Equation is the mathematical representation
for the calculation of net reactance when XL is greater than XC.
X = XL - XC
Resonance
In the Slides on inductance and capacitance we have learned that
both conditions are reactive and can provide opposition to current
flow, but for opposite reasons. Therefore, it is important to find the
point where inductance and capacitance cancel one another to
achieve efficient operation of AC circuits.

Resonant Frequency
Resonance occurs in an AC circuit when inductive reactance and
capacitive reactance are equal to one another: XL = XC. When this
occurs, the total reactance, X = XL - XC becomes zero and the
impendence is totally resistive. Because inductive reactance and
capacitive reactance are both dependent on frequency, it is possible to
bring a circuit to resonance by adjusting the frequency of the applied
voltage. Resonant frequency (fRes) is the frequency at which resonance
occurs, or where XL = XC. Equation mathematical representation for
resonant frequency.
Series Resonance

In a series R-C-L circuit, as in Figure , at resonance the net reactance of the

circuit is zero, and the impedance is equal to the circuit resistance; therefore,
the current output of a series resonant circuit is at a maximum value for that
circuit and is determined by the value of the resistance. (Z=R)
Parallel Resonance
Resonance in a parallel R-C-L circuit will occur when the reactive current in
the inductive branches is equal to the reactive current in the capacitive
branches (or when XL = XC). Because inductive and capacitive reactance
currents are equal and opposite in phase, they cancel one another at parallel
resonance.

If a capacitor and an inductor, each with negligible resistance, are

connected in parallel and the frequency is adjusted such that reactances
are exactly equal, current will flow in the inductor and the capacitor, but
the total current will be negligible. The parallel C-L circuit will present an
almost infinite impedance. The capacitor will alternately charge and
discharge through the inductor. Thus, in a parallel R-C-L, as the net current
flow through the circuit is at minimum because of the high impendence
presented by XL and XC in parallel.
Basic AC Power
Power Triangle
While direct current has one form of power, alternating current has three different
forms of power that are related in a unique relationship. We will discuss that
power in AC circuits cannot be calculated in the same manner as in DC circuits.
Apparent Power ( S)
Apparent power (S) is the power delivered to an electrical circuit. Equation is
a mathematical representation of apparent power. The measurement of
apparent power is in voltamperes (VA).

where
S = apparent power (VA)
I = RMS current (A) E = RMS voltage (V)
Z = impedance ()

True Power
True power (P) is the power consumed by the resistive loads in an electrical
circuit. Equation is a mathematical representation of true power. The
measurement of true power is in watts.
Reactive Power
Reactive power (Q) is the power consumed in an AC circuit because of the
expansion and collapse of magnetic (inductive) and electrostatic (capacitive)
fields. Reactive power is expressed in volt-amperes-reactive (VAR). Equation
is a mathematical representation for reactive power.

Unlike true power, reactive power is not useful power because it is stored in
the circuit itself. This power is stored by inductors, because they expand and
collapse their magnetic fields in an attempt to keep current constant, and by
capacitors, because they charge and discharge in an attempt to keep voltage
constant. Circuit inductance and capacitance consume and give back
reactive power. Reactive power is a function of a systems amperage. The
power delivered to the inductance is stored in the magnetic field when the
field is expanding and returned to the source when the field collapses. The
power delivered to the capacitance is stored in the electrostatic field when
the capacitor is charging and returned to the source when the capacitor
discharges. None of the power delivered to the circuit by the source is
consumed. It is all returned to the source.
Total Power
The total power delivered by the source is the apparent power. Part of this
apparent power, called true power, is dissipated by the circuit resistance in
the form of heat. The rest of the apparent power is returned to the source by
the circuit inductance and capacitance.

Power Factor
Power factor (pf) is the ratio between true power and apparent power.
True power is the power consumed by an AC circuit, and reactive power is
the power that is stored in an AC circuit. Cos is called the power factor
(pf) of an AC circuit. It is the ratio of true power to apparent power,
where is the phase angle between the applied voltage and current sine
waves and also between P and S on a power triangle (Figure1). Equation
is a mathematical representation of power factor.
Power factor also determines what part
of the apparent power is real power. It
can vary from 1, when the phase angle
is 0, to 0, when the phase angle is 90.
In an inductive circuit, the current lags
the voltage and is said to have a lagging
power factor, as shown in Figure .

In a capacitive circuit, the current

leads the voltage and is said to have
a leading power factor, as shown in
Figure
Three Phase System
Reactive Power Management
 No special reactive compensation devices were used in the early AC power systems,
because the generators were situated close to the loads. As networks became more
widespread, there was a need for development of reactive power compensation
devices.

Efficient management of active and reactive power flow is very important. Quality of
power supply is judged from the frequency and voltage of the power supply made
available to the consumers. While frequency is the measure of balance between
power generated (and power available) and MW demand impinged on the system,
the voltage is indicative of reactive power flows.

During the steady-state operation of an AC power system, the active power

production must match the consumption plus the losses otherwise the frequency will
change. There is an equally strong relationship between the reactive power balance of
a power system and the voltages.
Control of voltage and reactive power should satisfy the following objectives:

Control the power flow in the system to an optimal level in order to reduce
losses. This ensures that the transmission system operates efficiently.
Maintain power supply quality by maintaining bus voltages close to nominal
value.
To control the reserve reactive power in order to ensure its sufficiency during
normal and emergency conditions to prevent voltage collapse.
System stability is enhanced to maximize utilization of the transmission system.
Voltage and reactive power control have a significant impact on system stability.
Maximize the existing reactive power resources to minimize investment in
additional facilities.

Since reactive power cannot be transmitted over long distances, voltage control
has to be effected by using special devices dispersed throughout the system.

Reactive power (VAR) is required to maintain the voltage to deliver active

power (watts) through transmission lines. Motor loads and other loads
require reactive power to convert the flow of electrons into useful work.
When there is not enough reactive power, the voltage sags down and it is
not possible to push the power demanded by loads through the lines.
A great many loads consume not only active but also reactive power. The electric
network itself both consumes and produces reactive power. Transmission and
distribution of electric power involve reactive power losses due to the series
inductance of transformers, overhead lines and underground cables. The generation
of power also contains reactive components. Hence it is important to monitor and
control reactive power resources and reactive power consuming elements to maintain
proper voltages in the grid within safe and secure limits
Reactive power compensation should ideally be provided locally, by generating
reactive power as close to the reactive power consumption as possible. The
Regional Entities except Generating Stations are therefore expected to provide
local VAr compensation/generation such that they do not draw VArs from the EHV
grid, particularly under low-voltage condition. To discourage VAr drawals by
Regional Entities except Generating Stations, VAr exchanges with ISTS are priced as
follows:
-The Regional Entity except Generating Stations pays for VAr drawl when voltage at
the metering point is below 97%
-The Regional Entity except Generating Stations gets paid for VAr return when
voltage is below 97%
-The Regional Entity except Generating Stations gets paid for VAr drawl when
voltage is above103%
-The Regional Entity except Generating Stations pays for VAr return when voltage is
above 103%, Provided that there shall be no charge/payment for Var
drawl/return by a Regional Entity except Generating Stations on its own line
emanating directly from an ISGS.
The charge for VArh are at the rate of 10 paisa/kVArh w.e.f. 1.4.2010, and this will be
applicable between the Regional Entity, except Generating Stations, and the regional
pool account for VAr interchanges. This rate shall be escalated at 0.5paise/kVArh per
year thereafter, unless otherwise revised by the Commission ( CERC).
Reactive power & voltage control
REACTIVE POWER

Reactive power is defined for AC systems only. Reactive power is produced

when the current waveform is out of phase with the voltage waveform due to
inductive or capacitive loads. Current lags voltage with an inductive load and
leads voltage with a capacitive load. Only the component of current in phase
with voltage produces real or active power that does real work like running
motors, heating etc. Current is in phase with voltage for a resistive load like
an incandescent light bulb. Reactive power is necessary for producing the
electric and magnetic fields in capacitors and inductors.

Real and reactive power

is in quadrature (90
degrees out of phase)
and hence the letter Q is
commonly used to
designate reactive
power. Real power is
commonly designated as
P.
Analogy for understanding the Reactive power concept is the Coffee Mug analogy, a bit
simplistic. Reactive power takes up space on transmission lines. Here reactive power is like
the head on a Coffee because it takes up space in the mug leaving less room for the real
Coffee. For a transmission line, the square of the real power plus the square of the
reactive power must be less than the square of the thermal capacity (measured in volt-
amperes) of the line. When thermal capacity is exceeded significantly for a long time, the
line will sag, possibly into vegetation, causing a short circuit. Since power is the algebraic
product of voltage and current, the same power at high voltages has a lower current, and
hence, has lower losses

The additional current flow associated with reactive power can cause increased losses
and excessive voltage sags.
Active power balance, which has to be affected by means of the generators alone, a
proper reactive power balance can and often has to be effected both by the generators
and by dispersed special reactive devices, producing or absorbing reactive power. The
reactive power sources are classified into two types, static and dynamic. The static type
consists of shunt capacitor, and shunt reactor. The dynamic type is the source of reactive
power produced by generators, SVC, and OLTC.
Static: Capacitors and inductors (or reactors) supply and consume static reactive
power, respectively. These are called static devices since they have no active control of
the reactive power output in response to the system voltage. They cannot quickly
change their reactive output level with respect to system change.

Dynamic: Synchronous generators, synchronous condensers, Flexible AC

Transmission Systems (FACTS) including static var compensators (SVC), static
compensators (STATCOM), Dynamic Var (D-var) and Super VAR are considered as
dynamic reactive power devices capable of changing their output according to
pre-set limits in response to the changing system voltages. Under normal
operating conditions, dynamic reactive power supplies should operate with
substantial reactive power reserves in order to quickly provide reactive support
to the system during power system disturbances. Various sources and sinks of
reactive power are given in table 1.
The reactive power capability from static sources is less valuable than from dynamic
sources, because dynamic sources can adjust their production or consumption of
reactive power much more quickly as needed to maintain voltage and prevent a voltage
collapse.
DIFFERENT TYPE OF LOADS AND ITS REACTIVE POWER CONSUMPTION
Some typical values of reactive power consumption of individual loads are given
below:

Induction motors 0.5 to 1.1 Kvar/KW, at rated output.

Uncontrolled rectifiers 0.3 Kvar/KW.
Controlled rectifiers usually consume much more Kvar/KW than
uncontrolled ones and with dependence on the rectifier delay angle.
Arc furnaces around 1 Kvar/KW.

Both controlled rectifiers and arc furnaces of steel mills have a reactive
power consumption characterized by a high average value and fast
variations. Purely resistive loads, like filament lamps and electric heaters,
do not, of course, consume reactive power.

The synchronous motor is the only type of individual load, which can
produce reactive power. It consumes reactive power when under excited
and produces reactive power when overexcited. Synchronous motors are
usually operated overexcited and thus usually produce reactive power.
VOLTAGE MANAGEMENT
Control of voltage levels is accomplished by controlling the production,
absorption, and flow of reactive power at all levels in the system. Unlike system
frequency, which is consistent throughout an interconnected system in the
steady state, voltages experienced at points across the system form a "voltage
profile" which is uniquely related to local generation and demand at that
instant, and is also affected by the prevailing network arrangements.

Voltage changes continuously according to the varying electrical demand,

transmission lines utilization etc. Reactive power (VAR) is required to
maintain the voltage to deliver active power (watts) through transmission
lines. When there is not enough reactive power, the voltage sags down and it
is not possible to push the power demanded by loads through the lines.
PROCEDURES FOR CONTROLLING VOLTAGE AND REACTIVEPOWER:-
a) The control of voltage level is accomplished by controlling the
production , absorption and flow of reactive power at all levels in the system

Primary Voltage Control: According to the requirement, The generators

shall adjust the AVR which will vary the excitation of generating units in
order to achieve the specified voltage levels. For other voltage control
equipment such as SVCs or automatic tap changing transformers, they are
considered to be a part of primary voltage control. All equipment that is
used for the primary voltage control is considered to be dynamic.

Secondary Voltage Control: The control centers shall employ voltage

control mechanism by managing static reactive power sources, both
absorption and injection, for examples, shunt reactors, capacitor bank, etc,
all of which are within the considered zones in cooperate with the first step
for voltage control in order to maintain specified voltage levels at essential
delivery points that represent the zones.
Series and shunt capacitorstheir effect on reactive power

SHUNT CAPACITORS
There has been a phenomenal growth in the use of shunt capacitors as a
means of local provisions of reactive power, particularly within distribution
systems. Shunt capacitors supply reactive power and boost local voltages
thereby enhancing the system capacity and reducing the losses

Objective of shunt capacitor units are :

Capacitor Banks are sets of capacitors which are connected to the system through
mechanical switches of circuit breakers and their real power losses are very small.
The capacitors in a bank are switched in blocks. Switching of capacitor banks
provides a convenient means of controlling transmission system voltages.
When capacitors are switched out, they must be discharged before
reconnection, normally with discharge time ranging from two to fifteen
minutes. In some special applications, capacitor banks are equipped with
fast discharge reactors.
Rating of LT Capacitor to be installed at site as per Tariff Order

S.NO Rating of Motor in KVA KVAR rating of LT

capacitor
1. 3 1
2. 5 2
3. 7.5 3
4. 10 4
5. 15 5
6. 20 7
7. 25 9
S.NO Rating of Motor in KVAR rating of LT
KVA capacitor
8. 30 10
9. 40 12.5
10. 50 15
11. 60 17.5
12. 75 20
13. 90 25
14. 100 25
15. 120 30
16. 130 35
SERIES CAPACITORS

In series capacitors the reactive power is proportional to the square of the

load current, thus generating reactive power when it is most needed
whereas in shunt capacitors it is proportional to the square of the voltage.

OBJECTIVES OF SERIES COMPENSATION

The reactive power produced by a series capacitor increases with

increasing power transfer. Series capacitors are normally installed in
220kV and above systems. They reduce net transmission line
inductive reactance.
Series capacitors are connected in series with the line conductors to compensate for
the inductive reactance of the line. Series capacitors compensation is usually applied
for long transmission lines and transient stability improvement. The reactive
generation I2XC compensates for the reactive consumption I2XL of the transmission
line. This is a self-regulating nature of series capacitors. But at light loads series
capacitors have little effect.

Subsynchronous resonance (SSR):- Subsynchronous resonance (SSR) is a dynamic

phenomenon of interest in power systems that have certain special
characteristics. The formal definition of SSR provided by the IEEE is
Subsynchronous resonance is an electric power system condition where the
electric network exchanges energy with a turbine generator at one or more of the
natural frequencies of the combined system below the synchronous frequency of
the system.
Comparison between shunt and series compensation is shown in the below table.
Transformer tap changer effect on reactive power
Generating Transformer: - Power generated at generating station (usually at
the range of 11kV to 25kV) is stepped up by generating transformer to the
voltage level of 220, 400, 765kV for transmission. It is one of the important
and most critical components of power system. They are generally provided
with off circuit tap changer with a small variation in voltage because the
voltage can always be controlled by the field of generator. Generating
Transformer with OLTC also used for reactive power control.
Interconnecting Transformer: - Normally autotransformers are used to
interconnect two grid/systems operating at two different voltage levels (400
and 220kV). They are normally located between generating transformer and
receiving end transformer. In autotransformer there is no electrical isolation
between primary and secondary. Some volt-amperes are conductively
transformed and some are inductively transformed. Synchronous condenser
or shunt reactors are connected to the tertiary for reactive compensation if
required. Normally 400/220kV ICTs having the following tap setting:
-1 to 17 taps and 5 kV per tap
-- 10% range
Nominal tap at 9
VOLTAGE SOURCE CONVERTERS
Voltage source converters technology use high power self-turn off type
semiconductor devices such as IGBT. The use of IGBTs in VSC technology
eliminates the need of active commutation voltage and also allow for higher
switching frequencies which reduces the harmonic content. A higher switching
frequency reduces the filter requirement on AC side when compared to
conventional HVDC. Pulse width modulation is used for switching of
semiconductor devices in VSC based HVDC transmission.
Some of the advantages of VSC based transmission are:
a) Independent control of reactive and active power
b) Reactive control independent of other terminal
c) Simpler interface with ac system
d) Compact filters
e) Provides continuous ac voltage regulation
f) No minimum power restriction
g) Operation in extremely weak systems
h) No commutation failures
i) No restriction on multiple infeeds
j) No polarity reversal needed to reverse power
k) Black-start capability
l) Variable frequency
Flexible AC Transmission systems (FACTS).

The demand of lower power losses, faster response to system parameter

change, and higher stability of system have stimulated the development of the
Flexible AC Transmission systems (FACTS). Based on the success of research in
power electronics switching devices and advanced control technology, FACTS
has become the technology of choice in voltage control, reactive/active power
flow control, transient and steady-state stabilization that improves the
operation and functionality of existing power transmission and distribution
system.

The advances in semiconductors increases the switching frequency and

voltage-ampere ratings of the solid switches and facilitates the applications. For
example, the switching frequencies of Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs)
are from 3 kHz to 10 kHz which is several hundred times the utility frequency
of power system (50~60Hz). Gate turnoff thyristors (GTOs) have a switching
frequency lower than 1 kHz, but the voltage and current rating can reach 5-8
kV and 6 kA respectively.
STATIC VAR COMPENSATORS (SVC) :-
Static VAR compensators combine capacitors and inductors with fast
switching
Static Var Compensator is a shunt-connected static Var generator or
absorber whose output is adjusted to exchange capacitive or inductive
current so as to maintain or control specific parameters of the electrical
power system (typically bus voltage) . SVC is based on thyristors without
gate turn-off capability. The adjective static means that, unlike the
synchronous compensator, it has no moving primary part. Similar to
capacitors, the reactive output of an SVC varies according to the square of
the connected bus voltage.
FUNCTIONS OF SVC:-
It helps the power system in the following ways :
Improve voltage regulation
Dynamic Mvar Support to the system
Enhancing transmission line power carrying capacity
Improving Dynamic stability of the Integrated Grid
Damping power oscillation on the associated AC lines
Improves & Smoothen Voltage profile
CONVERTER-BASED COMPENSATOR
a) Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) is one of the key Converter based
Compensators which are usually based on the voltage source inverter (VSI) or
current source inverter (CSI), as shown in Figure 8.2.
b) Unlike SVC, STATCOM controls the output current independently of the AC
system voltage, while the DC side voltage is automatically maintained to
serve as a voltage source. Mostly, STATCOM is designed based on the VSI
(Voltage Source Inverter).

(a) STATCOM based on VSI and CSI (b) STATCOM with storage.
SYNCHRONOUS CONDENSERS:
Synchronous machines that are designed exclusively to provide reactive
support are called synchronous condensers, traditionally in use since 1920s. A
synchronous Condenser is a synchronous machine running without a prime
mover or a mechanical load. Like generators, they can be over-exited or
under-exited by varying their field current in order to generate or absorb
reactive power, synchronous condensers can continuously regulate reactive
power to ensure steady transmission voltage, under varying load conditions.
Thanks