Professional Documents
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Microwave Fundamentals
Microwave Fundamentals
Radio Propagation
Terminologies.
Polarization.
Microwave Frequency Bands.
Free space Loss.
Antenna .
Fresnel Zone
Modulation Technologies (QAM).
SDH,PDH,E1
H
P
Depending on the topography and the meteorological conditions, radio waves propagate
In different ways causing attenuation to the original wave. Following propagation
mechanisms come into play:
ii) Reflection :
When electromagnetic waves incide on a surface they may be reflected depending on
the smoothness of the surface. When the surface is smooth and its size is greater than
the wavelength of the wave then it is Reflected.
iii) Refraction :
Bending of waves when passing through one media to other media of different refractive
index is called REFRACTION. Radio waves travel with different velocities in different
medium depending on their dielectric constants. The dielectric constant of the
atmosphere decrease with altitude. Thus the waves travel slower in the lower part of
atmosphere where dielectric constant is greater and faster in the upper part where
dielectric constant is lower thus refracting the beam downwards.
Medium 2
For K = 1
Transmitter Antenna
Receiver
Effective Earth
vi) Absorption :
At frequencies above 10 GHz the propagation of radio waves through the atmosphere
of the earth is strongly affected by the resonant absorption of electromagnetic energy
by molecular water vapour and oxygen. The amount of water vapour in the
atmosphere strongly varies from place to place according to the local meteorological
conditions.
Proprietary & Confidential Slide
9
Radio Wave Propagation & Its
characteristics
vii) Attenuation :
As the EM waves travels it losses its energy, this is due to attenuation. Attenuation is
due to presence of other field (Magnetic or Electric), Due to fog, Due to Rain etc.
P1 P2
Rain Attenuation : Scattering and absorption of the radio wave by raindrops causes
attenuation. Although all frequencies are subject to these effects, rain attenuation is
of practical importance for frequencies above 10 GHz. Due to the random
behaviour of the rain events the same is not included as a contribution to the Link
Budget calculation.
Proprietary & Confidential Slide
10
Radio Wave Propagation & Its
characteristics
viii) Fading :
Fading is defined as any time varying of phase, polarization, and/ or level of a
received signal. The most basic propagation mechanism involved in Fading are
reflection, refraction, diffraction, scattering, attenuation and guiding(ducting).
i. Multi path Fading :
It is a common type of fading encountered in LOS radio links. This type of fading
results due to the interference between direct rays and component of ground
reflected wave & partial reflection from atmosphere.
ii. Fading due to Earth Bulge :
iii. Duct & Layer fading : Atmospheric ducts consisting of superrefractive and a
subrefractive layer or vice versa.
iv. Surface duct fading on over water path : It is a combination of multi path fading
due to water body and fading due to atmospheric duct.
Effective Earth
Effective Earth
Effective Earth
Water Body
Long distance
Therefore lower frequencies
Therefore subject to Multipath fading
Diversity route compensation
Lower frequencies less effected by rain
Direct beam
Delayed beam
Flat
Fade Flat
Thermal
Margin fade
Fade Margin
Rain
Margin
Rx Threshold level + interference
Rx Threshold level
RSL
Effective
Fade
f ,
Flat Dispersive
Fade Fade
Margin Margin Margin
Proprietary & Confidential Slide
18
Rain Fading
M
P
E13 E5 H9 H1
E12 E6 H8 H2
E11 E7 H7 H3
E10 E9 E8 H6 H5 H4
H E
P=V P=H
Earth
charges from operator for use of MW frequency pair. Charges are based on the
c) Bandwidth Requirement :
As per the no. of channel requirements the bandwidth of the system can be decided.
For example for 4mbps I.e. 60 nos of 64 kbps channels I.e. 4 Mbps , bandwidth of of
3.5MHz is required and so on as mentioned below:
7 MHz for 8 Mbps, 14 MHz for 16 Mbps and so on.
ii.AMSL
Above mean sea level. An antenna at AMSL 20m means it is 20meter higher than the mean
sea level.
Antenna Gain is measured w.r.t. isotropic antenna. An isotropic antenna radiates power in all direction.
In practical system the energy needs to be radiated in the desired direction in desired beam width. Thus
the total energy confined in the smaller aperture. Unit of antenna gain is dbi.
v) AGC
AGC stands for Automatic Gain Control. Media between two antennae in MW system is variable
thus the path loss. MW system is designed in such a way that it can add or reduces the gain to
compensate the variation in path loss. This mechanism is known as AGC system.
i. Diversity
ii. It is used to improve system performance. There are two types of
diversity used.
1. Space Diversity
2. Frequency Diversity
F1
F2
Space Frequency
Diversity Diversity
L fs 92.45 20 log(d f )
Examples
39 GHz 26 GHz
d=1km ---> L = 124 dBm d=1km ---> L = 121 dBm
d=2km ---> L = 130 dBm d=2km ---> L = 127 dBm
Pencil Beam
Reflector Antenna Toroidal Beam
G=?
Pout mW Gain is a referenced Value without
G measurements units
Pin Pout
Pin mW
1 = 0 dB
2 = 3 dB
3 = 4.7 dB
4 = 6 dB
5 = 7 dB
6 = 7.7 dB
Power measurements units in a logarithmical world is
7 = 8.5 dB
dBm (in reference to 1mW) or dBW (in reference to 1W).
8 = 9 dB
1mW = -30dBW = 0dBm 9 = 9.5 dB
1W = 0dBW = 30dBm 10 = 10 dB
A reminder
Log ( A B ) LogA LogB
Proprietary & Confidential Slide
42
Antennas Basics
Definition
= wavelength = c/f f = 3.5 GHz = 8.571 cm
- Transmission line - The device used to guide RF energy from one point to another one, with minimum
attenuation, heat and radiation losses.
Guides the energy
- Radio antenna - The structure associated with the region of transition between a guided wave and
a free space wave, or vice versa.
Radiates/receives energy
Generator
Transmission line
(spacing between wires is only
a fraction of the wave length) Antenna
(separation between wires
is in the range of one or
more wave lengths)
Proprietary & Confidential Slide
43
Directivity
RCV
RCV
For same amount of energy fed into the antenna, a
non-isotropic antenna will transmit its signal over
17 dBm (50mW)
Generator longer distances.
Non-isotropic antennas are characterized by their
capability to focus the transmitted energy,
expressed by the antenna gain
Volume (radiation) of subject antenna
Antenna gain = 10 Log [dBi]
volume (radiation) of isotropic antenna
Horizontal Vertical
18 18 18
35 2.5 2.5
at 3.500000 GHz
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35
-40
-45
-50
-180 -120 -60 0 60 120 180
d'1 d'2
Transmitter Receiver
d1 d2
nd1d 2
rn
d1 d 2
Base Antenna
site
Possible obtructor
Terminal rF: 1st Fresnel zone
Antenna site radius
L = 20 dB
L = 6 dB
3.5GHz 50 200 700 1200 1700 2200 2700 3200 3700 4200 4700 5200 5700 6200 6700 7200 7700 8200 8700 9200 97
50 1.5 1.9 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2
200 1.9 2.9 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.1 4
700 2.0 3.7 5.5 6.2 6.5 6.7 6.9 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.2 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.4 7.4 7.4 7.4 7.5 7.5 7
1200 2.0 3.8 6.2 7.2 7.8 8.2 8.4 8.6 8.8 8.9 9.1 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.3 9.4 9.4 9.5 9.5 9.5
1700 2.0 3.9 6.5 7.8 8.5 9.1 9.5 9.8 10.0 10.2 10.3 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 10.9 11.0 11.0
2200 2.0 4.0 6.7 8.2 9.1 9.7 10.2 10.6 10.9 11.1 11.3 11.5 11.7 11.8 11.9 12.0 12.1 12.2
2700 2.1 4.0 6.9 8.4 9.5 10.2 10.8 11.2 11.6 11.9 12.1 12.3 12.5 12.7 12.8 13.0 13.1
3200 2.1 4.0 7.0 8.6 9.8 10.6 11.2 11.7 12.1 12.5 12.8 13.0 13.3 13.5 13.6 13.8
3700 2.1 4.0 7.1 8.8 10.0 10.9 11.6 12.1 12.6 13.0 13.3 13.6 13.9 14.1 14.3
4200 2.1 4.0 7.2 8.9 10.2 11.1 11.9 12.5 13.0 13.4 13.8 14.1 14.4 14.6
4700 2.1 4.1 7.2 9.1 10.3 11.3 12.1 12.8 13.3 13.8 14.2 14.5 14.9
5200 2.1 4.1 7.3 9.1 10.5 11.5 12.3 13.0 13.6 14.1 14.5 14.9
5700 2.1 4.1 7.3 9.2 10.6 11.7 12.5 13.3 13.9 14.4 14.9
6200 2.1 4.1 7.3 9.3 10.7 11.8 12.7 13.5 14.1 14.6
6700 2.1 4.1 7.4 9.3 10.8 11.9 12.8 13.6 14.3
100
90
80
70
height (m)
60
26GHz
50
3.5GHz
40
`30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Range (km)
carrier
Data bits modulate (modify) a carrier signal
Basic modulation techniques message(t)
modulator transmitted
signal
Amplitude
Frequency
Phase
data bits 0 1 0 0 1
unmodulated
carrier
Amplitude Modulation
(AM)
Frequency Modulation
(FSK)
(Differential) Phase
Modulation (DPSK)
Symbol
Is a sinusoidal signal (carrier) with specific parameters
dictated by the bit(s), transmitted for finite period of
time.
Carrier parameters do not change for the duration of
the symbol
Even if the symbol itself is comprised of one single
frequency (the carrier), the fact that it is transmitted
over a finite period of time generates an infinite
spectrum, centered on the carrier frequency.
unmodulated
carrier fc f
Modulated
carrier fc
(symbols) 1 2 f
T T
Symbol 1 = A1cos(t -
Symbol Generation )
I/Q coordinates
Examples
A
Q
=
4
Kc = cos = 0.7
4 t
=
4
I Ks = sin = 0.7
4
cos(t - ) = 0.7cos t + 0.7sin t
4
A
=
8
Kc = cos = 0.9
8 t
Ks = sin = 0.4
8
cos(t - ) = 0.9cos t + 0.4sin t
8
I/Q coordinates
Symbol Generation
cos(t - ) = Kc*cos t + Ks*sin t
Kc Ks
cos t cos t
2 sin t
symbol
Easier to implement
Symbol reception
The symbol is identified by the relative amplitude of the sine
and cosine components. there is no need for coherent carrier.
Proprietary & Confidential Slide
63
Mapping process
Constellation Point
Q
Constelation
point
Q
The bits are divided
Constelation
into 3 bits for Q and 3
bits forpoint
I.
Q level 101 -> Q 111 -> I
The Q signal are at a
I
certain level defined
by the mapping
process.
The I signal is
handled in the same
I level manner.
Proprietary & Confidential Slide
65
Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation (QAM)
QAM constellations (patterns)
number of generated using
number of bits
amplitudes
amplitudes
amplitudes
nr. of sine
modulation
rate
phases
cosine
constellation
nr. of
technique
Q
000100 001100 011100 010100 110100 111100 101100 100100
+7
b. Receiver Sensitivity :
This is the minimum power, which can be sensed by RF unit and signals can be
received.
c. Fade Margin :
Fade Margin = Receiver Threshold (10E-6) - Actual received power
Power Output
Power
Propagation Loss
and attenuation
Antenna
Feeder Gain
Loss Feeder Received
Antenna Loss Power
Gain
Fading
Margin
Receiver 4dB
Threshold
Distance
To every transmitted signal a thermal noise is added, the thermal noise is marked by the
letter N and defined by Boltsman constant [K] ( K 1.38 10 23 ) multiple the temperature in
Kelvin [T] (room temperature equal to 290) multiple the bandwidth in MHz [B]. Or in other
words (in the linear way)
N K T B
in the logarithmical way
Signal to Noise Ration (SNR) defined as the ratio between the signal strength and the noise
strength.
Every active system adds a certain noise to the signal the parameter which described it call
Noise Figure (NF). Noise figure defined as the ratio between the input SNR to the output
SNR.
NF S IN N IN SNROUT
S IN N IN NF SNROUT
S IN
114 10LogB NF SNROUT
Power Power
received received
Required
received
power
Sensitivity Sensitivity SNR
SNR SNR
External
interference
Noise floor Noise floor
{thermal
noise +
implementation
noise (NF)}
Calculating receiver sensitivity )Note: SNR is a function of rate; values range from 5 dB to 30 dB(
Energy
Frequency in Hz
Voltage
Time
Voltage
Time
Fixed
256nos
Voltage
levels
Time
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1
0
1
2
3
4 Mu
ltip
lex 1 2 3 4 5 27 28 29 30 31
er
25 2Mbps stream
26
27
28
29
30
31
2Mbps stream
1
2 2/8
3 Multiplexer
4
2
3 8 / 32
8Mbps stream 4 Multiplexer
2
32 / 140
32 Mbps stream 3 140 Mbps stream
Multiplexer
4
M=Multiplexer
Proprietary & Confidential Slide
79
SDH
1
1
2
2 STM-1 STM-1
ADM
20 20
21 21
2Mbps stream
Level Rate(Mb/s) E1
0 0.064 -
1 2.048 1
2 8.448 4
3 34.368 16
4 139.264 64
Level Rate(Mb/s) E1
STM-1 155.52 63
STM-4 622.08 252
STM-8 1244.16 504
STM-16 2488.32 1008
STM-64 ~10GHz 4032