CDMA

Code Division Multiple Access

Muhannad alfegawi aljazaerli
 Multiple Access
• For radio systems there are two resources, frequency
and time.
• Division by frequency, so that each pair of
communicators is allocated part of the spectrum for all of
the time, results in Frequency Division Multiple Access
(FDMA).
 Division by time, so that each pair of communicators is
allocated all (or at least a large part) of the spectrum for
part of the time results in Time Division Multiple Access
(TDMA).
 In Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), every
communicator will be allocated the entire spectrum all of
the time. CDMA uses codes to identify connections.
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 Introduction to Spread Spectrum
Communications
CDMA is a form of Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum communications. In general, Spread
Spectrum communications is distinguished by
three key elements:
1. The signal occupies a bandwidth much greater than
that which is necessary to send the information. This
results in many benefits, such as immunity to
interference and jamming and multi-user access,
which we’ll discuss later on.
2. The bandwidth is spread by means of a code which is
independent of the data. The independence of the
code distinguishes this from standard modulation
schemes in which the data modulation will always
spread the spectrum somewhat. 4
 Cont.
3. The receiver synchronizes to the code to recover
the data. The use of an independent code and
synchronous reception allows multiple users to
access the same frequency band at the same
time.

• In order to protect the signal, the code used is

pseudo-random. It appears random, but is
actually deterministic, so that the receiver can
reconstruct the code for synchronous detection.
This pseudo-random code is also called
pseudo-noise (PN).

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 CODING
 CDMA uses unique spreading codes to spread the
baseband data before transmission.
 The signal is transmitted in a channel, which is below
noise level.
 The receiver then uses a correlator to despread the
wanted signal, which is passed through a narrow
bandpass filter.
 Unwanted signals will not be despread and will not pass
through the filter.
 Codes take the form of a carefully designed one/zero
sequence produced at a much higher rate than that of
the baseband data.
 The rate of a spreading code is referred to as chip
rate rather than bit rate.
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Three Types of Spread Spectrum
Communications
There are three ways to spread the bandwidth of the
signal:
1. Frequency hopping. The signal is rapidly switched
between different frequencies within the hopping
bandwidth pseudo-randomly, and the receiver knows
before hand where to find the signal at any given time.
2. Time hopping. The signal is transmitted in short
bursts pseudo-randomly, and the receiver knows
before hand when to expect the burst.
3. Direct sequence. The digital data is directly coded at
a much higher frequency. The code is generated
pseudo-randomly, the receiver knows how to
generate the same code, and correlates the received
signal with that code to extract the data.
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General Model of Spread
Spectrum System

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 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
• CDMA is a Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum system.
The CDMA system works directly on 64 kbit/sec digital
signals. These signals can be digitized voice, ISDN
channels, modem data, etc.
• Figure 1 shows a simplified Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum system. For clarity, the figure shows one
channel operating in one direction only.
• Signal transmission consists of the following steps:
1. A pseudo-random code is generated, different for each channel
and each successive connection.
2. The Information data modulates the pseudo-random code (the
Information data is “spread”).
3. The resulting signal modulates a carrier.

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 Cont.
4. The modulated carrier is amplified and broadcast.
• Signal reception consists of the following
steps:
1. The carrier is received and amplified.
2. The received signal is mixed with a local carrier to
recover the spread digital signal.
3. A pseudo-random code is generated, matching the
anticipated signal.
4. The receiver acquires the received code and phase
locks its own code to it.
5. The received signal is correlated with the generated
code, extracting the Information data
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 Direct Sequence
 Direct Sequence is the most famous Spread Spectrum
Technique. The data signal is multiplied by a Pseudo
Random Noise Code (PN-code).
 A PN-code is a sequence of chips valued -1 and 1 (polar)
or 0 and 1 (non-polar). The number of chips within one
code is called the period of this code. A PN-code is a
noise-like code with certain properties
 Several classes of binary (2-phase) PN-codes exist: M-
sequences (base), Gold-codes and Kasami-codes.
There exists also 4-phase codes, these aren't taken into
account yet. A PN-code can be created by means of one or
more shiftregisters. When the length of such a
shiftregister is , in general the following can be said about
the period : N=2^n-1
 In the most simple case a complete PN-code is multiplied
with a single data bit. The bandwidth of the data signal is
now multiplied by a factor , this factor is said to be the 12
processing gain
CDMA in a DSSS Environment

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Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum Example

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Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum Transmitter

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Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum Receiver

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 Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum Using BPSK Example

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Seven Channel CDMA
Encoding and Decoding

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 CODES

• CDMA codes are not required to provide call

security, but create a uniqueness to enable call
identification.
• Codes should not correlate to other codes or time
shifted version of itself.
• Spreading codes are noise like pseudo-random
codes, channel codes are designed for maximum
separation from each other and cell identification
codes are balanced not to correlate to other codes
of itself.
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 Cont.
• WCDMA uses Direct Sequence spreading, where
spreading process is done by directly combining
the baseband information to high chip rate
binary code.
• The Spreading Factor is the ratio of the chips
(UMTS = 3.84Mchips/s) to baseband information
rate. Spreading factors vary from 4 to 512 in FDD
UMTS.
• Spreading process gain can in expressed in
dBs (Spreading factor 128 = 21dB gain).

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 WCDMA Spreading
 TDD WCDMA uses spreading factors 4 - 512 to
spread the base band data over ~5MHz band.
Spreading factor in dBs indicates the process gain.
Spreading factor 128 = 21 dB process gain).
Interference margin is calculated from that:
Interference Margin = Process Gain - (Required
SNR + System Losses)
 Required Signal to Noise Ration is typically about 5
dB
 System losses are defined as losses in receiver
path. System losses are typically 4 - 6 dBs

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 Cont.

 When using Frequency Hopping, the carrier

frequency is 'hopping' according to a known
sequence (of length). In this way the bandwidth is
also increased.
 There are two kinds of Frequency Hopping
Techniques.
 Slow Frequency Hopping (SFH)
In this case one or more data bits are transmitted within
one Frequency Hop. An advantage is that coherent data
detection is possible. A disadvantage is that if one
frequency hop channel is jammed, one or more data bits
are lost. So we are forced to use error correcting codes.
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 Cont.
Fast Frequency Hopping (FFH)
In this technique one data bit is divided over
more Frequency Hops. Now error correcting
codes are not needed. An other advantage is
that diversity can be applied. Every frequency
hop a decision is made whether a -1 or a 1 is
transmitted, at the end of each data bit a
majority decision is made. The applied
modulation technique should be FSK or
MFSK.
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 Frequency Hopping Spread
Spectrum System (Transmitter)

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 Frequency Hopping Spread
Spectrum System (Receiver)

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 Slow and Fast FHSS
• Frequency shifted every Tc seconds
• Duration of signal element is Ts seconds
• Slow FHSS has Tc  Ts
• Fast FHSS has Tc < Ts
• Generally fast FHSS gives improved
performance in noise (or jamming)

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 Slow Frequency Hop Spread
Spectrum Using MFSK (M=4, k=2)

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 Fast Frequency Hop Spread
Spectrum Using MFSK (M=4, k=2)

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Frequency Hopping Example

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 Hybrid System: DS/(F)FH
• The DS/FFH Spread Spectrum technique is a
combination of direct-sequence and frequency-
hopping. One data bit is divided over
frequency-hop channels (carrier frequencies).
In each frequency-hop channel one complete
PN-code of length is added to the data signal
(see figure, where is taken to be 5). Using the
FFH scheme in stead of the SFH scheme
causes the bandwidth to increase, this increase
however is neglectable with regard to the
enormous bandwidth already in use.
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 POWER CONTROL
 CDMA is interference limited multiple access system.
Because all users transmit on the same frequency,
internal interference generated by the system is the most
significant factor in determining system capacity and
call quality.
 The transmit power for each user must be reduced to
limit interference, however, the power should be
enough to maintain the required Eb/No (signal to noise
ratio) for a satisfactory call quality.
 Maximum capacity is achieved when Eb/No of every
user is at the minimum level needed for the acceptable
channel performance.
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 Cont.
 As the MS moves around, the RF environment
continuously changes (a) due to fast and slow
fading, (b) external interference, (c) shadowing ,
and other factors.
 The aim of the dynamic power control is to
limit transmitted power on both the links while
maintaining link quality under all conditions.
 Additional advantages are longer mobile
battery life and longer life span of BTS power
amplifiers
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 HANDOVER
 Handover occurs when a call has to be passed from
one cell to another as the user moves between cells.
 In a traditional "hard" handover, the connection to the
current cell is broken, and then the connection to the
new cell is made. This is known as a "break-before-
make" handover.
 Since all cells in CDMA use the same frequency, it is
possible to make the connection to the new cell before
leaving the current cell. This is known as a "make-
before-break" or "soft" handover.
 Soft handovers require less power, which reduces
interference and increases capacity.
 Mobile can be connected to more than two BTS the
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handover.
 Cont.
• One of the main advantages of CDMA systems
is the capability of using signals that arrive in the
receivers with different time delays. This
phenomenon is called multipath.
• FDMA and TDMA, which are narrow band
systems, cannot discriminate between the
multipath arrivals, and resort to equalization to
mitigate the negative effects of multipath.
• Due to its wide bandwidth and rake receivers,
CDMA uses the multipath signals and combines
them to make an even stronger signal at the
receivers. 40
 Cont.
 CDMA subscriber units use rake receivers.
 This is essentially a set of several receivers.
One of the receivers (fingers) constantly
searches for different multipaths and feeds the
information to the other three fingers. Each
finger then demodulates the signal
corresponding to a strong multipath. The
results are then combined together to make the
signal stronger.

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Principle of RAKE Receiver

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Call Stages

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