Genetics

• study of heredity and

variation in living
organisms
Heredity
- transmission of traits from parents to
offspring/progeny

Geneticists
- use the laws of probability to help them
determine the possible outcome/s from a
genetic cross
- Punnett Square
Gregor Johann Mendel

(1822 - 1884)
 Gregor Mendel (1822 –
1868)
• Austrian monk
• experimented with pea
plants
• observed traits (phenotype)
are inherited

Gregor Mendel
http://www.blc.arizona.edu/courses/181gh/rick/genetics1/mendel.html
Inherited characteristics

genetically determined traits

e.g., eye color, shape of eyes

color of coat
 Principles of Heredity

Law of Segregation
- genes separate or segregate during the
formation of gametes
 Law of Segregation

Segregation

The principle of segregation is explained by the behavior of homologous

chromosomes at meiosis.
Law of Independent Assortment
- different genes assort independently of one
another during gamete formation
The Independent Alignment of Different Pairs of
Homologous Chromosomes At Meiosis Accounts for the
Law of Independent Assortment

The alignment of one pair of homologs is

independent of any other.

Law of Independent Assortment: The assortment

of one pair of genes into gametes is independent
of the assortment of another pair of genes.
Chromosomes

- discrete structures composed of DNA and protein

found only in the nuclei of cells
 The cell’s three dimensional nature

Understanding Physical Anthropology and Archaeology, 8th ed., p. 43

• Gene vs. allele vs. locus
Gene
- Unit of inheritance
- segment/section of DNA coding
for a trait so it can determine
how an organism appears and
functions
• allele - specific form of the
gene
• Locus – location of the
gene on the chromosome

• Gene: seed color

length of stem (plants)
color of coat
length of horn
texture of the coat
• Allele: yellow or green,
Allele
- is an alternative/specific form of a gene that is located at a specific
position on a specific chromosome
- organisms have two alleles for each trait
Ex. gene for seed color in pea plant exists in 2 forms
 one form or allele for yellow (dominant allele)
 other allele for green (recessive allele)
Genes, Alleles, and Chromosomes
Questions:
1. Gene codes for what trait?
2. What is the allele?
3. Which is dominant allele/ recessive allele?
Variation
- differences existing among members of
species and between parents and offspring
Dominant gene
- describing a genetic trait governed by an allele that can be
expressed in the presence of another different allele
- gene that is always expressed whenever present
- expressed by capital letter
ex. S- short hair/coat
B- black coat
R- rough coat
W- wire hair

ex. B x b Bb
blackcoat x white coat black
Recessive gene
- gene hidden or not expressed in the presence of dominant gene
- recessive gene may be expressed in the absence of dominant gene
- represented by small letter
ex.
s - long hair
b - white coat
r - smooth coat
w - straight hair/coat

Wxw Ww
wire haired x straight haired wire haired

wxw ww
 Human traits
1. Shape of the face Oval dominant , square recessive

2. Cleft in chin No cleft dominant, cleft recessive

3. Earlobes Free ear lobe, attached recessive

4. Freckles Freckles dominant, no freckles recessive

5. Tongue folding Inability dominant, ability recessive

6. Finger mid-digital hair Hair dominant, no hair recessive

7. Eyebrow shape Separated dominant, joined recessive

 S s

Y y

Characters investigated by Mendel

Genotype
– The genetic make-up of the individual; what
alleles it has
– Expressed in genetic formula
• Heterozygous ex. Yy
• Homozygous recessive ex. yy
• Homozygous dominant ex. YY
Homozygous/homozygote
- an organism with two identical alleles for a particular trait
- purebred
- homozygous dominant
- or homozygous recessive
Heterozygous/heterozygote
- an organism with two different alleles/contrasting

genes for a particular trait

- hybrid
 S s

Y y

Questions:
1. Genotype of smooth seed?
Characters investigated by Mendel
2. Genotype of green seed?
3. Genotype of heterozygous flower?
Phenotype

-the observable physical characteristics of

an organism
- the detectable expressions of genotype
- visible characteristics
ex. size of the organism, color, structure
Parental generation
- first organism in a particular cross
- refers to the parents contributing to the genetic make up of the
offspring
- represented by symbol P

Filial generation
- individuals/offsprings produced from the first cross
- represented by symbol F1
- son or daughter in Latin

Monohybrid cross
- a cross dealing with only one characteristic (ex. color). 
 Monohybrid cross
(one trait)

parentals or
P generation
Black X White

first filial or
F1 generation
 Punnett Square
• provides a simple method to calculate probable
results of a genetic cross
• grid designed to determine possible genotypes
produced by a given cross
• estimate the probability of the offspring of having
a particular characteristic
• introduced by R. Punnett
 Steps

1. Determine the genotypes of the parent organisms

2. Write down your cross mating
3. Draw a p-square
4. Split the letters of the genotype for each parent and
put them outside the p-square
5. Determine the possible genotypes of the offspring by
filling in the p-square
6. Summarize results (genotypes, genotypic ratio
phenotypes, phenotypic ratio of the offspring and the
probability
Sample Problem (Monohybrid Cross)

Pretend that for a certain type of rabbit, having

black hair is a dominant trait over white hair. 
A rabbit with a heterozygous genotype is crossed
with a rabbit with the same genotype.  Use B for the
dominant trait and b for the recessive trait.
Determine the:
a. genotype and genotypic ratio
b. Phenotype and phenotypic ratio
c. probability
 
 Bb X Bb

B b Female
Parent
B
Male BB Bb
Parent
b Bb bb

Genotype: Phenotype:
BB –homozygous black 3 black
Bb – heterozygous black 1 white
Bb – homozygous white
Genotypic ratio: 1:2:1 Phenotypic ratio:
1BB 3:1
2Bb
1bb

Probability:
25% are expected to be purebred; homozygous.
75% are expected to be hybrid; heterozygous.
 Biotechnology
-process of modifying or moving the genes to
produce plants and animals with desirable
traits for useful purposes
- involves the creation of a hybrid
Plant biotechnology
- scientific technique
used to improve plants
and plant products
- genes are modified to
produce plants with
desired traits

Genetic Engineering
- a new method of
Plant biotechnology
- develops GM plants
35
A fourteen month old genetically engineered (biotech)
salmon (left) standard salmon (right)