HINDUSTAN UNIVERSITY

AERO ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

PREPARED BY
Mr.Dinesh Kumar.G
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
School of Aeronautical Engineering
UNIT-I
 Thermodynamic Systems, States and
Processes
Objectives are to:
define thermodynamics systems and states of systems
explain how processes affect such systems
apply the above thermodynamic terms and ideas to the laws of
thermodynamics
Internal Energy of a Classical ideal gas
Classical means Equipartition Principle applies: each
molecule has average energy kT per in thermal equilibrium.

At room temperature,
for most gases:

monatomic gas (He, Ne, Ar, ) 3

KE kT
3 translational modes (x, y, z) 2

diatomic molecules (N2, O2, CO, ) 5

3 translational modes (x, y, z) KE kT
+ 2 rotational modes (wx, wy)
2

3 3
U N kT pV
2 2
 Internal Energy of a Gas
A pressurized gas bottle (V = 0.05 m3), contains
helium gas (an ideal monatomic gas) at a pressure p =
1107 Pa and temperature T = 300 K. What is the
internal thermal energy of this gas?

3
2
3
U N kT pV
2

1.5 107 Pa 0.05m3 7.5 105 J
 Changing the Internal Energy
U is a state function --- depends uniquely on the state of the
system in terms of p, V, T etc.
(e.g. For a classical ideal gas, U = NkT )

There are two ways to change the internal energy of a system:

WORK done by the system

on the environment

Wby = -Won

HEAT is the transfer of thermal energy

into the system from the surroundings
Q
Thermal reservoir

Work and Heat are process energies, not state functions.

Work Done by An Expanding Gas

The expands slowly enough to

maintain thermodynamic equilibrium.
dW Fdy PAdy
Increase in volume, dV
dW PdV
+dV Positive Work (Work is
done by the gas)

-dV Negative Work (Work is

done on the gas)
 A Historical Convention

+dV Positive Work (Work is Energy leaves the system

done by the gas) and goes to the environment.

-dV Negative Work (Work is Energy enters the system

done on the gas) from the environment.
 Total Work Done

dW PdV
Vf

W PdV
Vi

To evaluate the integral, we must know

how the pressure depends (functionally)
on the volume.
 Pressure as a Function of Volume

Vf

W PdV
Vi

Work is the area under

the curve of a PV-diagram.

Work depends on the path

taken in PV space.
The precise path serves to
describe the kind of
process that took place.
Different Thermodynamic Paths

The work done depends on the initial and final

states and the path taken between these states.
 Work done by a Gas
When a gas expands, it does work on its environment

Consider a piston with cross-sectional area A

filled with gas. For a small displacement dx,
the work done by the gas is:

dWby = F dx = pA dx = p (A dx)= p dV dx
We generally assume quasi-static processes (slow Vf
enough that p and T are well defined at all times): Wby p dV
This is just the area under the p-V curve Vi

p p p

V V V

Note that the amount of work needed to take the system from one
state to another is not unique! It depends on the path taken.
 What is Heat?
Up to mid-1800s heat was considered a substance -- a
caloric fluid that could be stored in an object and
transferred between objects. After 1850, kinetic
theory.

A more recent and still common misconception is that

heat is the quantity of thermal energy in an object.

The term Heat (Q) is properly used to describe energy

in transit, thermal energy transferred into or out of a
system from a thermal reservoir
Q U

(like cash transfers into and out of your bank account)

Q is not a state function --- the heat depends on the

process, not just on the initial and final states of the system
Sign of Q : Q > 0 system gains thermal energy
Q < 0 system loses thermal energy
 An Extraordinary Fact

The work done depends on the initial and final

states and the path taken between these states.

BUT, the quantity Q - W does not depend

on the path taken; it depends only on the initial
and final states.

Only Q - W has this property. Q, W, Q + W,

Q - 2W, etc. do not.
So we give Q - W a name: the internal energy.
The First Law of Thermodynamics
(FLT)
-- Heat and work are forms of energy transfer
and energy is conserved.

U = Q + Won

change in heat added work done

total internal energy to system on the system
State Function Process Functions

or
U = Q - Wby
 1st Law of Thermodynamics
U Q W
positive Q : heat added to system
positive W : work done by system
statement of energy conservation for a thermodynamic
system
internal energy U is a state variable
W, Q process dependent
The First Law of Thermodynamics

dEint dQ dWby
What this means: The internal energy of a system
tends to increase if energy is added via heat (Q)
and decrease via work (W) done by the system.

dEint dQ dWon
. . . and increase via work (W) done on the system.

dWby dWon
 Isoprocesses
apply 1st law of thermodynamics to closed
system of an ideal gas
isoprocess is one in which one of the
thermodynamic (state) variables are kept
constant
use pV diagram to visualise process
 Isobaric Process
process in which pressure is kept
constant
 Isochoric Process
process in which volume is kept
constant
 Isothermal Process
process in which temperature is held
constant
Thermodynamic processes of an ideal gas
( FLT: U = Q - Wby )
Isochoric (constant volume)
Wby pdV 0 2

U Nk T V p p
Q
FLT: Q U 1
Temperature
V changes

Isobaric (constant pressure)

p
Wby pdV pV 1 2
p
U Nk T p V
Q
FLT: Q U Wby 1 p V Temperature and
V volume change
 ( FLT: U = Q - Wby )
Isothermal (constant temperature) p
1
V
U 0 1
V2
V2
Wby p dV NkT n p 2
Q
V V1
1
Thermal Reservoir

FLT: Q Wby V T

Volume and
pressure change
 The First Law Of Thermodynamics

2-1.The central point of first law

2-2. Internal energy and total energy
2-3.The equation of the first law
2-4.The first law for closed system
2-5.The first law for open system
2-6.Application of the energy equation
 2-1.The central point of first law

1.Expression
In a cyclic process, the algebraic sum of the
work transfers is proportional to the algebraic
sum of the heat transfers.
Energy can be neither created nor destroyed;
it can only change forms.
The first law of thermodynamics is simply a
statement of energy principle.
 2-1.The central point of first
law
2.Central point
The energy conservation law is used to
conservation between work and heat.
Perpetual motion machines of the first
kind.(PMM1)
Heat: see chapter 1;
Work: see chapter 1;
 2-2.Internal Energy

1.Definition:
Internal energy is all kinds of micro-energy in system.
2. Internal energy is property
It include:
a) Kinetic energy of molecule (translational kinetic,
vibration, rotational energy)
b) Potential energy
c) Chemical energy
d) Nuclear energy
 2-2.Internal Energy

3.The symbol
u: specific internal energy, unit J/kg, kJ/kg ;
U: total internal energy, unit J, kJ;
4.Total energy of system
E=Ek+Ep+U
Ek=mcf2/2
Ep=mgz
E=Ek+Ep+U
per unit mass:
e=ek+ep+u
e=ek+ep+u
2-3. The equation of the first law

1. The equation
( inlet energy of system) (outlet energy of
system) = (the change of the total energy of the
system)
Ein-Eout=Esystem
2-4.The first law in closed system
1. The equation
Ein-Eout=Esystem

Q W
2-4.The first law in closed system
Q-W=Esystem=U
Q=U+W
Per unit mass:
q= u+w
dq=du+dw
If the process is reversible, then:
dq=du+pdv
This is the first equation of the first law.
Here q, w, u is algebraic.
2-4.The first law in closed system
The only way of the heat change to mechanical
energy is expansion of working fluid.
2-5. The first law in open system
1. Stead flow
For stead flow, the following conditions are
fulfilled:
The matter of system is flowing steadily, so that
the flow rate across any section of the flow has
the same value;
The state of the matter at any point remains
constant;
Q, W flow remains constant;
2-5. The first law in open system
2. Flow work
Wflow=pfs=pV
wflow=pv
p

V
2-5. The first law in open system
3. Wt are expansion work and the
change of flow work for open system.
4. Ws is Wt and the change of kinetic
and potential energy of fluid for open
system.
2-5. The first law in open system
5. Enthalpy
for flow fluid energy:
U+pV +mcf2/2+mgz

H =U+pV unit: J, kJ
For Per unit mass:
h=u+pv unit: J/kg, kJ/kg
2-5. The first law in open system
6. Energy equation for steady flow open system

U1+p
H V1 f12/2, mgz1
, 1mc

W
Q

U2+p
H V2 f22/2, mgz2
, 2mc
2-5. The first law in open system
1
Ein Q H1 m1c f 1 mgz1
2

2
1
Eout Ws H 2 m2c f 2 mgz2
2

2
Esystem 0
1 1
(Q H1 m1c f 1 mgz1 ) (Ws H 2 mc f 2 mgz2 ) 0
2 2

2 2
2-5. The first law in open system
1
Q H mc f mgz Ws
2

2
Per unit mass:
1 2 1 2
(q h1 c f 1 gz1 ) ( ws h2 c f 2 gz2 ) 0
2 2
1
q h c f gz ws
2

2
2-5. The first law in open system
If neglect kinetic energy and potential energy , then:
q h wt
If the process is reversible, then:
q h vdp
This is the second equation of the first law.
2-5. The first law in open system
7. Energy equation for the open system

Q
Inlet flows Out flows

1 1

2 Open system 2

i j

W
2-5. The first law in open system
Energy equation for the open system

n n
. . . 1 2 . . . 1 2 . . .
Q Ws (hi c fi g zi ) mi ( h j c fj g z j ) m j Esystem
i 2 i 2
2-6. Application of The Energy Equation
1. Engine
a). Turbines energy equation:
Ein-Eout=Esystem=0
U1+p
H V1 f12/2, mgz1 =0
, 1mc
Wi=H2-H1
wi=h2-h1

Q
Q0 Wi

U2+p
H22V2
mcf22/2, mgz2=0
2-6. Application of The Energy Equation

1. Engine
b). Cylinder engine energy equation:
Wt=H2-H1+Q=(U+pV) 2-(U+pV) 1 +Q
Ek1, Ep10
H2

Q
Wt
H1
Ek1, Ep10
2-6. Application of The Energy Equation

2. Compressors
Energy equation:
Wc=- Wt =H2-H1
Ek1, Ep10
H2

Wc
H1
Ek1, Ep10
Q0
2-6. Application of The Energy Equation

3. Mixing chambers
Energy equation:
m1h1 + m2h2 -m3h3=0
Mixing water:
m3h3

hot water: m2h2

Cold water: m1h1

2-6. Application of The Energy Equation

4. Heat exchangers
Energy equation:
m3h3

mh m5h5

m1h1 m4h4

m6h6

(m1h1 + m2h2 + m3h3)-(m4h4 + m5h5 + m6h6)= 0

2-6. Application of The Energy Equation

5. Throttling valves
Energy equation:
h1 -h2 =0

h2

h1
Unit - II

Air Cycles
OTTO CYCLE
 OTTO CYCLE
Efficiency is given by
1
1 1
r
Efficiency increases with increase in
compression ratio and specific heat
ratio () and is independent of load,
amount of heat added and initial
conditions.

r
1 0
2 0.242
CR from 2 to 4, efficiency is 76%
3 0.356
4 0.426
5 0.475
CR from 4 to 8 efficiency is 32.6
6 0.512
7 0.541
8 0.565
9 0.585 CR from 8 to 16 efficiency 18.6
10 0.602
16 0.67
20 0.698
50 0.791
 OTTO CYCLE
Mean Effective Pressure
It is that constant pressure which, if exerted
on the piston for the whole outward stroke,
would yield work equal to the work of the
cycle. It is given by
W
mep
V1 V2

Q23

V1 V2
 OTTO CYCLE
Mean Effective Pressure
V2
We have: V1 V2 V1 1
V1

1
V1 1
r

Eq. of state: R0 T1
V1 M
m p1
To give: p1m
Q23
MR0T1
mep
1
1
r
 OTTO CYCLE
Mean Effective Pressure
The quantity Q2-3/M is heat added/unit
mass equal to Q, so

p1m
Q
R0T1
mep
1
1
r
 OTTO CYCLE
Mean Effective Pressure
Non-dimensionalizing mep with p1 we get

mep 1 Q m

1
p1 1 R0 T1
r
Since:
R0
cv 1
m
 OTTO CYCLE
Mean Effective Pressure
We get
mep Q 1

cvT1 1
1 r 1
p1

Mep/p1 is a function of heat added, initial

temperature, compression ratio and
properties of air, namely, cv and
 Choice of Q
We have
Q23
Q
M
For an actual engine: Q23 M f Qc

FM a Qc in kJ / cycle

F=fuel-air ratio, Mf/Ma

Ma=Mass of air,
Qc=fuel calorific value
 Choice of Q
We now get: Q
FM a Qc
M
M a V1 V2
Now
M V1

V1 V2 1
And 1
V1 r
Thus:
1
Q FQc 1
r
 Choice of Q
For isooctane, FQc at stoichiometric
conditions is equal to 2975 kJ/kg, thus
Q = 2975(r 1)/r
At an ambient temperature, T1 of 300K and
cv for air is assumed to be 0.718 kJ/kgK,
we get a value of Q/cvT1 = 13.8(r 1)/r.
Under fuel rich conditions, = 1.2, Q/ cvT1 =
16.6(r 1)/r.
Under fuel lean conditions, = 0.8, Q/ cvT1
= 11.1(r 1)/r
 OTTO CYCLE
Mean Effective Pressure
Another parameter, which is of importance,
is the quantity mep/p3. This can be
obtained from the following expression:

mep mep 1 1

p3 p1 r
Q
1
1
cvT1r
 Diesel Cycle
Thermal Efficiency of cycle is given by

1 rc 1

1 1
r rc 1
rc is the cut-ff ratio, V3/V2

We can write rc in terms of Q:

Q
rc 1
1
c pT1r
 We can write the mep formula for the
diesel cycle like that for the Otto cycle in
terms of the , Q, , cv and T1:

mep Q 1

cvT1 1
p1
1
r 1
 Diesel Cycle
We can write the mep in terms of , r and

rc:
mep r rc 1 r rc 1


p1 r 1 1
The expression for mep/p3 is:
mep mep 1

p3 p1 r
DUAL CYCLE
 Dual Cycle
The Efficiency is given by
1

r r 1
1 1 p c

r rp 1 rp rc 1

We can use the same expression as

before to obtain the mep.
To obtain the mep in terms of the cut-off
and pressure ratios we have the
following expression
 Dual Cycle

mep rp r rc 1 r p

r 1 r r r 1


p c

p1 r 1 1
For the dual cycle, the expression for mep/p3
is as follows:
 Dual Cycle

mep rp r rc 1 r rp 1 r rp rc 1


p1 r 1 1
For the dual cycle, the expression for mep/p3
is as follows:
mep mep p1

p3 p1 p3
 Dual Cycle
We can write an expression for rp the
pressure ratio in terms of the peak
pressure which is a known quantity:
p3 1
rp
p1 r
We can obtain an expression for rc in terms
of Q and rp and other known quantities as
follows:
 Dual Cycle

1 Q 1
rc
1 1

cvT1r rp
We can also obtain an expression for rp in
terms of Q and rc and other known
quantities as follows:
Q
c T r 1 1
rp v 1
1 rc
First Law of Thermodynamics Review

Steady - State First Law :

V 2 V 2
Q W m he
e
gze m hi i
gzi
2 2

if only 1 fluid stream exists &
kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible :
Q W he hi
rate of heat transfer Q Qm where Q has units of kJ/kg in SI
power W Wm where W (work) has units of kJ/kg in SI
 Vapor Power Cycles
In these types of
cycles, a fluid
evaporates and
condenses.
Ideal cycle is the
Carnot
Which processes here
would cause
problems?
 Ideal Rankine Cycle
This cycle follows the idea of the Carnot
cycle but can be practically implemented.
1-2 isentropic pump 2-3 constant pressure heat addition
3-4 isentropic turbine 4-1 constant pressure heat rejection
 Ideal Cycle Analysis
h1=hf@ low pressure (saturated liquid)
Wpump (ideal)=h2-h1=vf(Phigh-Plow)
vf=specific volume of saturated liquid at low
pressure
Qin=h3-h2 heat added in boiler (positive
value)
Rate of heat transfer = Q*mass flow rate
Usually either Qin will be specified or else the
high temperature and pressure (so you can
find h3)
 Ideal Cycle Analysis, cont.
Qout=h4-h1 heat removed from condenser
(here h4 and h1 signs have been switched
to keep this a positive value)
Wturbine=h3-h4 turbine work
Power = work * mass flow rate
h4@ low pressure and s4=s3
 Deviations from Ideal in Real Cycles
Pump is not ideal

Wideal v f P2 P1
pump Wactual
Wactual
pump
Turbine is not ideal

turbine Wactual W note that this is an inverse of the pump equation

ideal

There will be a pressure drop across the boiler and

condenser
Subcool the liquid in the condenser to prevent cavitation
in the pump. For example, if you subcool it 5C, that
means that the temperauture entering the pump is 5C
below the saturation temperature.
 Reheat Cycle
Allows us to increase boiler pressure
without problems of low quality at turbine
exit
 Regeneration
Preheats steam entering boiler using a
feedwater heater, improving efficiency
Also deaerates the fluid and reduces large
volume flow rates at turbine exit.
 Unit III

AIR-COMPRESSORS
 Reciprocating Compressors
Scroll Compressors
Screw Compressors
Turbo Compressors
Roller Type Compressors
Vane Type Compressors
Refrigeration Technology
Chapter10. Compressors

Main Types of Compressors

The compressor is the heart of a mechanical refrigeration system.

There is the need for many types of compressors because of the

variety of refrigerants and the capacity, location and application of
the systems.

Generally, the compressor can be classified into two basic types:

positive displacement and roto-dynamic.
Refrigeration Technology
Chapter10. Compressors

compressor
As shown in Fig.10-1, the positive s
displacement family includes
reciprocating compressors and Positive Roto-dynamic
Displacement
rotary compressors. Turbo/Centri
Reciprocati Rotary
fugal
According to the movement of ng

compression components, the

rotary compressors can be further
classified as scroll, screw, roller-
type and vane type.
The roto-dynamic compressor
which is also called centrifugal or Scroll Screw roller- vane-type
type rotary
turbo compressor, is classified as
radial flow and axial flow types
according to the flow
arrangement.
Fig.10-1 .The classification of compressors

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Refrigeration Technology
Chapter10. Compressors

10-1.Reciprocating Compressors

93
Refrigeration Technology
Chapter10. Compressors

1. The Construction of Reciprocating

Compressors
Reciprocating compressor
compresses the vapor by
moving piston in cylinder to
change the volume of the
compression chamber, as shown
in Fig.10-2.
The main elements of a
reciprocating compressor
include piston, cylinder, valves,
connecting rod, crankshaft and
casing. Fig.10-2 Cutaway view of small two-cylinder reciprocating compressor [12]
Refrigeration Technology
Chapter10. Compressors

A wide variety of compressor designs can be used on the

separable unit including horizontal, vertical, semi-radial and V-
type.

However, the most common design is the horizontal, balanced-

opposed compressor because of its stability and reduced
vibration.
Refrigeration Technology
Chapter10. Compressors

2. Principle of Operation
Fig. 10-3 shows single-acting piston actions in the cylinder of a
reciprocating compressor.
The piston is driven by a crank shaft via a connecting rod.
At the top of the cylinder are a suction valve and a discharge valve.
A reciprocating compressor usually has two, three, four, or six
cylinders in it.

Fig.10-3 The compression cycle [13]

Refrigeration Technology
Chapter10. Compressors

The states of the refrigerant in a reciprocating compressor can be expressed

by four lines on a PV diagram as shown in Fig.10-4.

Discharge
volume

3 2

pressure

Clearan
ce Suction intake volume

4 1

Piston displacement

Total cylinder volume

volume
Fig.10-4 Principle of operation of a reciprocating compressor

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Refrigeration Technology
Chapter10. Compressors

3. Clearance Space and Clearance

Fraction
In order to prevent the piston from striking the valve plate, a
clearance volume must be allowed at the end of the piston
compression stroke.

Manufacturing design tolerances require this to allow for reasonable

bearing wear, which would effectively lengthen the stroke.

The space between the bottom and top of the valve assembly adds
extra to the clearance volume.
Refrigeration Technology
Chapter10. Compressors

The clearance volume will cause the vapor not being completely
discharged after compression.
The remaining vapor trapped in the clearance volume will re-expend
in the next suction stroke.
As a result, the volume of the vapor sucked in by the compressor in
each stroke is less than the volume the piston swept through.
So the compressor volumetric displacement must be greater than
the volume of vapor to be drawn in.
Other factors that cause reduction to the compressor capacity are:
pressure drop through valves which reduces the amount of vapor
sucked or discharged; vapor leaks around closed valves or between
the piston and cylinder; refrigerant evaporating out of oil in the
cylinder space; the vapor heated by the cylinder walls, thus,
increasing its specific volume.
99
Refrigeration Technology
Chapter10. Compressors

The performance of reciprocating compressors can be described by

volumetric efficiency.
Here we only consider the actual and the clearance volumetric
efficiencies. The actual volumetric efficiency is defined as

volume flow rate entering compressor , m3 s

va
displacement rate of compressor , m3 s
Refrigeration Technology
Chapter10. Compressors

2. Advantages and limitation

Scroll compressors can deliver high compression pressure ratio.
The pressure ratio is increased by adding spiral wraps to the scroll.
Scroll compressors are true rotary motion and can be dynamically
balanced for smooth, vibration-free, quiet operation.
They have no inlet or discharge valves to break or make noise and
no associated valve losses.
Although scroll compressors continue to expand into larger and
smaller size compressor market, some weak points of scroll
compressors could limit this trend.
One of them is that the effect of leakage at the apex of the crescent
shaped pokets could become so significant in small size
compressors that scoll compressors can not be constructed much
smaller.
Refrigeration Technology
Chapter10. Compressors

10-3. Screw Compressors

102
Refrigeration Technology
Chapter10. Compressors

2. Advantages of the screw compressor

Screw compressors are reliable and compact.
Compressor rotors can be manufactured with very small
clearances at an economic cost.
In many applications, the screw compressor offers significant
advantages over reciprocating compressors.
1. Its fewer moving parts mean less maintenance. There is no need to
service the items such as compressor valves, packing and piston
rings, and the associated downtime for replacement.

2. The absence of reciprocating inertial forces allows the screw

compressor to run at high speeds. So, it could be constructed more
compact.
Refrigeration Technology
Chapter10. Compressors

3. The continuous flow of cooling lubricant allows much higher single-

stage compression ratios.

4. The compactness tends to reduce package costs.

5. Low vibration due to reducing or eliminating pulsations by screw

technology

6. Higher speeds and compression ratios help to maximize available

production horsepower.

A major problem with screw compressors is that the pressure

difference between entry and exit creates very large radial and
axial forces on the rotors whose magnitude and direction is
independent of the direction of rotation.

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Chapter10. Compressors

10-4. Turbo Compressors

105
Refrigeration Technology
Chapter10. Compressors

1. The construction and operation of

turbo Compressors
Turbo compressor as understood in refrigeration industry usually refers to
a centrifugal compressor.
A schematic diagram of the centrifugal compressor is shown in Fig.10-14.
Vapor enters axially at the centre wheel 1
and flows through the passage 3 in the
impeller 2.
The pressure and absolute velocity of the
vapor rises when it passes the impeller
because of the centrifugal force.
In the stationary diffuser 4 the flow of vapor Fig.10-14 Schematic diagram of the centrifugal compressor
1-eye, inlet cavity. 2impeller (wheel). 3-blades (or vanes).
is decelerated to further raise the vapor 4-diffuser. 5-volute (scroll). 6- outlet cavity.

pressure.
The compressed vapor is collected in the
scroll or volute 5 and discharged to the
 Refrigeration Technology
Chapter10. Compressors

The major elements of a

centrifugal compressor are
shown in Fig.10-13.
A turbo compressor
consists of a housing and
at least one rotor of which
the shaft is pivotally
supported by the housing,
with a free shaft end and
Fig. 10-13 Two-stage centrifugal compressor
1-Second-stage variable inlet guide vane. 2-First-stage impeller. with a rotor connected with
3-Second-stage impeller. 4-Water-cooled motor.
5-Base, oil tank, and lubricating oil pump assembly. the other end of the rotor
6-First-stage guide vanes and capacity control.
7-Labyrinth seal. 8-Cross-over connection. 9-Guide vane actuator. shaft.
10-Volute casing. 11-Pressure-lubricated sleeve bearing. The discharge
opening is not shown.
 Refrigeration Technology
Chapter10. Compressors

The free end of the rotor shaft

facing away from the rotor
projects into a pressure chamber
connected with the housing, and
is acted upon by a pressurized
fluid whose force of pressure
compensates for the force of the
axial thrust acting on the rotor.
Thus, the starting friction of the
Fig. 10-13 Two-stage centrifugal compressor
1-Second-stage variable inlet guide vane. 2-First-stage impeller.
compressor is lower and drive
3-Second-stage impeller. 4-Water-cooled motor.
5-Base, oil tank, and lubricating oil pump assembly.
motors of lower output target
6-First-stage guide vanes and capacity control.
7-Labyrinth seal. 8-Cross-over connection. 9-Guide vane actuator.
can be utilized.
10-Volute casing. 11-Pressure-lubricated sleeve bearing. The discharge
opening is not shown.

108
Refrigeration Technology
Chapter10. Compressors

10-5. Roller Type Compressors

Refrigeration Technology
Chapter10. Compressors

The roller type compressorwhich is also called as blade-type rotary compressor

by some companies, compresses gases by revolving a steel cylindrical roller on an
eccentric shaft which is mounted concentrically in a cylinder (Fig.10-15).

Fig.10-15 Roller-type compressor [18] 110

Refrigeration Technology
Chapter10. Compressors

Because of the shaft being

eccentric, the cylinder roller
is eccentric with the cylinder
as well.
The cylinder roller touches
the cylinder wall at the point
of minimum clearance.
As the shaft turns, the roller
rolls around the cylinder wall
in the direction of shaft
rotation, always maintaining
contact with the cylinder
wall.

Fig.10-15 Roller-type compressor [18] 111

Refrigeration Technology
Chapter10. Compressors

With relation to the camshaft,

the inside surface of the
cylinder roller moves counter to
the direction of shaft rotation in
the manner of a crankpin
bearing.
A spring-loaded blade mounted
in a slot in the cylinder wall,
bears firmly against the roller at
all times.
The blade moves in and out of
the cylinder slot to follow the
roller as the latter rolls around
the cylinder wall.
Fig.10-15 Roller-type compressor [18] wu wei-dong 112
Refrigeration Technology
Chapter10. Compressors

Cylinder heads or end-plates are used to close the cylinder at each

end and to serve as supports for the camshaft.
Both the roller and blade extend the full length of the cylinder with
only working clearance being allowed between these parts and the
end-plates.
Suction and discharge ports are located in the cylinder wall near the
blade slot, but on opposite sides.
The flow of vapor through both the suction and discharge ports is
continuous, except for the instant that the cylinder at the point of
contact between the blade and roller on one side and between the
roller and cylinder wall on the other side.
Refrigeration Technology
Chapter10. Compressors

10-6. Vane Type Compressors

114
Refrigeration Technology
Chapter10. Compressors

The vane type compressorwhich is also called as sliding vane

compressoror multi-vane compressor by some companies,
employs a series of rotating vanes or blades which are installed
equidistant around the periphery of a slotted rotor (Fig.10-16).

Fig.10-16 vane-type rotary compressor.[19]

Refrigeration Technology
Chapter10. Compressors

The rotor shaft is mounted eccentrically in a steel cylinder so that the rotor
nearly touches the cylinder wall on one side, the two being separated only
by an oil film at this point.
Directly opposite this point the clearance between the rotor and the cylinder
wall is maximum.
Heads or end-plates are installed on the ends of the cylinder and to hold the
rotor shaft.
The vanes move back and forth radially in the
rotor slots as they follow the contour of the
cylinder wall when the rotor is turning.
The vanes are held firmly against the cylinder
wall by action of the centrifugal force developed
by the rotating rotor.
In some instances, the blades are spring-loaded to
obtain a more positive seal against the cylinder Fig.10-16 vane-type rotary compressor.[19]
wall.
116
Refrigeration Technology
Chapter10. Compressors

The suction vapor drawn into the cylinder through suction ports in
the cylinder wall is entrapped between adjacent rotating vanes.
The vapor is compressed by the reduction in volume that results as
the vanes rotate from the point of maximum rotor clearance to the
point of minimum rotor clearance.
The compressed vapor is discharged from the cylinder through ports
located in the cylinder wall near the point of minimum rotor
clearance.
Refrigeration Technology
Chapter10. Compressors

The discharge ports are so located as to allow discharge of the

compressed vapor at the desired point which is the design point of
the compressor during the compressing process.
Operation of the compressor at compression ratios above or below
the design point will result in compression losses and increasing
power consumptions.
Current practice limits compression ratios to a maximum of 7 to 1.

118
Unit IV
Refrigeration &

Air Conditioning
 Objectives

Basic operation of refrigeration and AC

systems
Principle components of refrigeration and
AC systems
Thermodynamic principles of refrigeration
cycle
Safety considerations
 Uses of Systems

Cooling of food stores and cargo

Cooling of electronic spaces and
equipment
CIC (computers and consoles)
Radio (communications gear)
Radars
ESGN/RLGN
Sonar
Cooling of magazines
Air conditioning for crew comfort
 Definition Review
Specific heat (cp): Amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of 1 lb
of substance 1F (BTU/lb) how much
for water?
Sensible heat vs Latent heat
LHV/LHF
Second Law of Thermodynamics: must
expend energy to get process to work
 Refrigeration Cycle

Refrigeration - Cooling of an object and

maintenance of its temp below that of
surroundings
Working substance must alternate b/t
colder and hotter regions
Most common: vapor compression
Reverse of power cycle
Heat absorbed in low temp region and
released in high temp region
Generic Refrigeration Cycle
Thermodynamic Cycle
 Typical
Refrigeration
Cycle
 Components

Refrigerant
Evaporator/Chille
r
Compressor
Condenser
Receiver
Thermostatic
expansion valve
(TXV)
 Refrigerant
Desirable properties:
High latent heat of vaporization - max cooling
Non-toxicity (no health hazard)
Desirable saturation temp (for operating
pressure)
Chemical stability (non-flammable/non-
explosive)
Ease of leak detection
Low cost
Readily available
 Evaporator/Chiller

Located in space to be refrigerated

Cooling coil acts as an indirect heat
exchanger
Absorbs heat from surroundings and
vaporizes

Latentsuperheated
Slightly Heat of Vaporization
(10F) -
Sensible
ensures Heatcarryover
no liquid of surroundings
into
compressor
 Compressor
Superheated Vapor:
Enters as low press, low temp vapor
Exits as high press, high temp vapor
Temp: creates differential (T)
promotes heat transfer
Press: Tsat allows for
condensation at warmer temps
Increase in energy provides the driving
force to circulate refrigerant through the
system
 Condenser
Refrigerant rejects latent heat to cooling
medium
Latent heat of condensation (LHC)
Indirect heat exchanger: seawater absorbs
the heat and discharges it overboard
 Receiver

Temporary storage space & surge

volume for the sub-cooled refrigerant
Serves as a vapor seal to prevent vapor
from entering the expansion valve
 Expansion Device
Thermostatic Expansion Valve (TXV)
Liquid Freon enters the expansion valve
at high pressure and leaves as a low
pressure wet vapor (vapor forms as
refrigerant enters saturation region)
Controls:
Pressure reduction
Amount of refrigerant entering evaporator
controls capacity
 Air Conditioning
Purpose: maintain the atmosphere of an
enclosed space at a required temp,
humidity and purity
Refrigeration system is at heart of AC
system
Heaters in ventilation system
Types Used:
Self-contained
Refrigerant circulating
Chill water circulating
 AC System Types
Self-Contained System
Add-on to ships that originally did not have
AC plants
Not located in ventilation system (window
unit)
Refrigerant circulating system
Hot air passed over refrigerant cooling coils
directly
Chilled water circulating system
Refrigerant cools chill water
Hot air passes over chill water cooling coils
Basic AC System
 Safety Precautions
Phosgene gas hazard
Lethal
Created when refrigerant is exposed to high
temperatures
Handling procedures
Wear goggles and gloves to avoid eye irritation and
frostbite
Asphyxiation hazard in non-ventilated spaces
(bilges since heavier than air)
Handling of compressed gas bottles
 Unit V

One Dimensional Compressible

flow
 5.1 Introduction

Good approximation for practicing gas dynamicists

eq. nozzle flowflow through wind tunnel & rocket engines
 5.2 Governing Equations
For a steady,quasi-1D flow
The continuity equation :

v ds d
s
t

1u1 A1 2u2 A2
The momentum equation :

( v )
s ( v ds )v
t
d f d p ds
s

p1 A1 u A (A pdA) x p2 A2 2u22 A2
2 A2
X-dir 1 1 1
1

Y-dir Automatically balainced

The energy equation

q d pv ds ( f v )d
s

V2 V2
[ (e )]d (e )v ds
t 2 s
2

h e p

2 2
u u
h1 h2 h0 const
1 2 total enthalpy is
constant along the flow
2 2
Actually, the total enthalpy is constant along a streamline in any
adiabatic steady flow
 5.3 Area-Velocity Relation
d ( uA) 0

dP dP d
udu
udA Adu Aud 0 d
uA adiabatic & inviscid
no dissipation mechanism
d du dA isentropic
0
u A
d udu u du 2
2 du
2 2 M
a au u
dA du
( M 1)
2

A u
Important information
1. M0 incompressible flow
Au=const consistent with the familiar continuity eq for
incompressible flow
2. 0M1 subsonic flow
an increase in velocity (du+) is associated with a decrease
in area (dA) and vice versa.
3. M>1 supersonic flow
an increase in velocity is associated with an increase in area ,
and vice versa
4. M=1 sonic flow dA/A=0
a minimum or maximum in the area
A subsonic flow is to be
accelerated isentropically
from subsonic to
supersonic

Supersonic flow is to be
decelercted isentropically
from supersonic to
subsonic
 Application of area-velocity
relation
1.Rocket engines