Mechanics of Rigid Bodies

4.1
Rigid body
Rigid body: a system of mass points subject to the
holonomic constraints that the distances between all
pairs of points remain constant throughout the
motion

If there are N free particles, there are 3N degrees of

freedom

For a rigid body, the number of degrees of freedom

is reduced by the constraints expressed in the form:
rij cij

How many independent coordinates does a rigid

body have?
 4.1
The independent coordinates of a rigid
body
Rigid body has to be described by its orientation
and location

Position of the rigid body is determined by the

position of any one point of the body, and the
orientation is determined by the relative position of
all other points of the body relative to that point
 4.1
The independent coordinates of a rigid
body
Position of one point of the body requires the
specification of 3 independent coordinates

The position of a second point lies at a fixed

distance from the first point, so it can be specified by
2 independent angular coordinates

0
 4.1
The independent coordinates of a rigid
body
The position of any other third point is determined
by only 1 coordinate, since its distance from the first
and second points is fixed

Thus, the total number of independent coordinates

necessary do completely describe the position and
orientation of a rigid body is 6

0
 4.1
Orientation of a rigid body
The position of a rigid body can be described by
three independent coordinates,

Therefore, the orientation of a rigid body can be

described by the remaining three independent
coordinates

There are many ways to define the three orientation

coordinates

One common ways is via the definition of direction

cosines
 4.1
Direction cosines
Direction cosines specify the orientation of one
Cartesian set of axes relative to another set with
common origin

i' i cos 11 j cos 12 k cos 13

j ' i cos j cos k cos
21 22 23

k' i cos 31 j cos 32 k cos 33

Orthogonality conditions:
i j j k k i i' j ' j 'k' k'i' 0
i i j j k k i'i' j ' j ' k'k' 1
 4.1
Orthogonality conditions
i'i'
(i cos11 j cos12 k cos13 ) (i cos11 j cos12 k cos13 )
cos 2 11 cos 2 12 cos 2 13 1
i' j '
(i cos11 j cos12 k cos13 ) (i cos21 j cos22 k cos23 )
cos11 cos 21 cos12 cos 22 cos13 cos 23 0
Performing similar operations for the remaining 4
pairs we obtain orthogonality conditions in a compact
form:
3

cos
l 1
li cos lk ik
 4.1
Orthogonal transformations

For an arbitrary vector G iG1 jG2 kG3

We can find components in the primed set of axes

as follows: G ' i'G i'iG i' jG i'kG
1 1 2 3

(i cos 11 j cos 12 k cos 13 ) iG1

(i cos j cos k cos ) jG
11 12 13 2

(i cos 11 j cos 12 k cos 13 ) kG3

cos11G1 cos12G2 cos13G3
Similarly
G2 ' cos 21G1 cos 22G2 cos 23G3
G3 ' cos 31G1 cos 32G2 cos 33G3
 4.2
Orthogonal transformations
Therefore, orthogonal transformations are defined
as:
3
Gi ' aijG j ; aij cos ij
j 1

Orthogonal transformations can be expressed as a

matrix relationship with a transformation matrix A

G' AG
With orthogonality conditions imposed on the
transformation matrix A
3

a a
l 1
li lk ik
 4.3
Properties of the transformation matrix
Introducing a matrix inverse to the transformation
matrix 3
1
AA 1 a
l 1
kl ali ki
3
Let us consider a matrix element a ij a
k 1
kj ki

3
3 3 3
3
akj akl ali akj akl ali ali akj akl
3

k 1 l 1 k 1 l 1
3
l 1 k 1
ali jl a ji aij
l 1
1 ~
A A
3
Orthogonality conditions a
k 1
kj akl jl
 4.3
Properties of the transformation matrix
~ ~ ~
A A 1 AA AA 1 AA 1

Calculating the determinants

~ ~
AA A A A A A 1 1
2

A 1

The case of a negative determinant

corresponds to a complete inversion
of coordinate axes and is not
physical (a.k.a. improper)
 4.1
Properties of the transformation matrix 4.2

In a general case, there are 9 non-vanishing

elements in the transformation matrix
a11 a12 a13
A a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
In a general case, there are 6 independent equations
in the orthogonality conditions
3 i' j ' j 'k' k'i' 0
cos
l 1
li cos lk ik
i'i' j ' j ' k'k' 1
Therefore, there are 3 independent coordinates that
describe the orientation of the rigid body
 4.2
Example: rotation in a plane
Lets consider a 2D rotation of a position vector r

The z component of the vector is not affected,

therefore the transformation matrix should look like

a11 a12 0

A a21 a22 0
0 0 1
2 With the orthogonality conditions
a
k 1
kj akl jl j , l 1,2
The total number of independent
coordinates is
43=1
 4.2
Example: rotation in a plane
The most natural choice for the independent
coordinate would be the angle of rotation, so that

x1 ' x1 cos x2 sin

x2 ' x1 sin x2 cos
x3 ' x3

The transformation matrix

cos sin 0
A sin cos 0
0 0 1
 4.2
Example: rotation in a plane
The three orthogonality conditions
a11a11 a21a21 1
a12a12 a22a22 1
a11a12 a21a22 0

They are rewritten as

cos 2 sin 2 1
sin 2 cos 2 1
cos sin sin cos 0
 4.2
Example: rotation in a plane
cos sin 0
The 2D transformation matrix
A sin cos 0
It describes a CCW rotation of 0 0 1
the coordinate axes

Alternatively, it can describe

a CW rotation of the same
vector in the unchanged
coordinate system
 4.4
The Euler angles
In order to describe the motion of rigid bodies in the
canonical formulation of mechanics, it is necessary
to seek three independent parameters that specify
the orientation of a rigid body

The most common and useful set of such

parameters are the Euler angles

The Euler angles correspond to an orthogonal

transformation via three successive rotations
performed in a specific sequence

The Euler transformation matrix is proper

A 1 Leonhard Euler
(1707 1783)
 4.4
The Euler angles
First, we rotate the system around the z axis

cos sin 0 x'

x' ' Dx' sin cos 0 y '
0 0 1 z '

Then we rotate the system around the x axis

1 0 0 x' '
X Cx' ' 0 cos
sin y ' '

0 sin cos z ' '
 4.4
The Euler angles
Finally, we rotate the system around the Z axis

cos sin 0 X

x BX sin cos
0 Y
0 0 1 Z

The complete transformation can be expressed as a

product of the successive matrices

x BX BCx' ' BCDx' Ax '

x Ax '
 4.4
The Euler angles
The explicit form of the resultant transformation
matrix A is
A BCD
cos cos cos sin sin cos sin cos cos sin sin sin
sin cos cos sin cos sin sin cos cos cos cos sin
sin sin sin cos cos

The described sequence is known as the x-

convention

Overall, there are 12 different possible conventions

in defining the Euler angles
 4.6
Euler theorem
Euler theorem: the general displacement of a rigid
body with one point fixed is a rotation about some
axis

If the fixed point is taken as the origin, then the

displacement of the rigid body involves no
translation; only the change in orientation

If such a rotation could be found, then the axis of

rotation would be unaffected by this transformation

Thus, any vector lying along the axis of rotation

must have the same components before and after the
orthogonal transformation:
R ' AR R
 4.6
Euler theorem
AR R AR 1R ( A 1)R 0
This formulation of the Euler theorem is equivalent
to an eigenvalue problem ( A 1)R 0
With one of the eigenvalues 1
So we have to show that the orthogonal
transformation matrix has at least one eignevalue 1
The secular equation of an eigenvalue problem is
A 1 0
It can be rewritten for the case of 1
A 1 0
 4.6
Euler theorem
~
Recall the orthogonality condition: A 1 AA 1
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
AA A 1 A ( A 1) A 1 A ( A 1) A 1 A
~ ~ ~ ~
A 1 A 1 A A 1 A 1 A A 1 1 A
~ A 1 1 A A 1 (A 1)
A 1 1 A
A 1 (1) A 1
n

n is the dimension of the square matrix

For 3D case: A 1 (1)3 A 1 A 1 A 1

It can be true only if A 1 0 Q.E.D.

 4.6
Euler theorem
For 2D case (rotation in a plane) n = 2:
A 1 (1) A 1
n A 1 A 1 Michel Chasles
(17931880)
Euler theorem does not hold for all orthogonal
transformation matrices in 2D: there is no vector in
the plane of rotation that is left unaltered only a
point

To find the direction of the rotation axis one has to

solve the system of equations for three components
of vector R:
( A 1)R 0
Removing the constraint, we obtain Chasles
theorem: the most general displacement of a rigid
body is a translation plus a rotation
 4.8
Infinitesimal rotations
Let us consider orthogonal transformation matrices
of the following form
A 1
Here is a square matrix with infinitesimal elements

Such matrices A are called matrices of infinitesimal

rotations

Generally, two rotations do not commute

A1A2 R A2 A1R
Infinitesimal rotations do commute
(1 1 )(1 2 ) 1 11 1 2 1 2 1 1 2
(1 2 )(1 1 ) 1 2 1 11 21 1 2 1
 4.8
Infinitesimal rotations
The inverse of the infinitesimal rotation: A 1 1

Proof:(1 ) A (1 )(1 ) 1 1 1 1
~ ~
~
On the other hand: A 1 A 1 1
Matrices are antisymmetric
0 d3 d 2
In 3D we can write: d3 0 d1
d 2 d1 0
Infinitesimal change of a vector:
3
dr r'r (1 )r r r (dr )i ij rj
j 1
 4.8
Infinitesimal rotations
0 d3 d 2

3
(dr )i ij rj d3 0 d1
j 1
d 2 d1 0
(dr )1 r2 d3 r3d 2
3
(dr )i ijk rj dk

(d) nd
(dr ) 2 r3d1 r1d3 j , k 1

(dr ) 3 r1d 2 r2 d1
dr r (d)

(d) is a differential vector, not a
differential of a vector

dr (r sin )d dr (r n )d

(d) is normal to the rotation plane
 4.8
Infinitesimal rotations
0 d3 d 2 0 n3 n2
n n1 d
d3 0 d1 3 0
d 2 d1 0 n2 n1 0

3
0 0 0 (d) nd
d ni M i
M1 0 0 1
i 1
0 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 0
M 2 0 0 0 ; M 3 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0
These matrices are called infinitesimal
rotation generators 3
M i M j M j M i ijk M k
i 1
 4.8
Example: infinitesimal Euler angles
A
cos cos cos sin sin cos sin cos cos sin sin sin
sin cos cos sin cos sin sin cos cos cos cos sin
sin sin sin cos cos
For infinitesimal Euler angles it can be rewritten as
1 d d 0
A (d d ) 1 d 1
0 d3 d 2
0 d 1
d3 0 d1
0 d d 0 d 2 d1 0

(d d ) 0 d

0 d 0 (d) id k(d d )
 4.9
Rate of change of a vector
3
G' AG Gi ' aijG j aij ij daij ij ij
j 1

dGi ' aij dG j G j daij ( ij daij )dG j G j daij

3 3

j 1 j 1

ij dG j G j ij dGi G j ijk d k dGi
3 3 3

j 1 j 1 k 1 3
ijkG j d k
3
dGi ' dGi G di j ,k 1
ij ijk d k
k 1

Dividing by dt
dG ' dG
G dt d ' G
G G
dt dt
 4.10
Example: the Coriolis effect

G
G ' G const
Velocity vectors in the rotating and in the
stationary systems are related as

rs rr r vs vr r
For the rate of change of velocity

d (vr r )
(vs ) s (vs ) r vs (vr r )
dt r

(vr ) r 2 vr ( r )

ar as 2 vr ( r )

Rotating system: acceleration acquires Gaspard-Gustave

Coriolis and centrifugal components Coriolis
(1792 - 1843)
 Example: the Coriolis effect

ac vr 2
On the other hand

qB
aL v
m
This is the Lorentz acceleration

qB
aL v L L
m

What is the relationship between those two?

 1.2
Kinetic energy of a system of particles
1
Kinetic energy of a system of particles T 2 mi (ri )
2

i

Introducing a center of mass: mi ri mi ri
R i i
mi ri MR
i
mi M
i

We can rewrite the coordinates in the center-of-

mass coordinate system:

ri ri ' R ri ri ' R
Kinetic energy can be rewritten:
1 2 1
T mi (ri ) mi (ri ' R) (ri ' R)
2 i 2 i
1 1
mi (ri ' ) mi (ri 'R) mi ( R ) 2
2

2 i i 2 i
 1.2
Kinetic energy of a system of particles
1 1
T mi (ri ' ) mi (ri 'R) mi ( R)
2 2

2 i i 2 i
1 1 2
mi (ri ' ) R mi ri ' ( R) mi
2

2 i i 2 i
1 d 1 2
mi (ri ' ) R mi ri ' ( R) M
2

2 i dt i 2
On the other hand


mi ri MR mi ri ' MR'
i
i
In the center-of-mass coordinate
system, the center of mass is at the
origin, therefore
1 1 2
T mi (ri ' ) ( R) M
2

2 i 2
 1.2
5.1
Kinetic energy of a system of particles
Kinetic energy of the system of particles consists of
a kinetic energy about the center of mass plus a
kinetic energy obtained if all the mass were
concentrated at the center of mass

This statement can be applied to the case of a rigid

body: Kinetic energy of a rigid body consists of a
kinetic energy about the center of mass plus a kinetic
energy obtained if all the mass were concentrated at
the center of mass

Recall Chasles theorem!

1 1 2
T mi (ri ' ) ( R) M
2

2 i 2
 5.1
Kinetic energy of a system of particles
Chasles: we can represent motion of a rigid body as
a combination of a rotation and translation

If the potential and/or the generalized external

forces are known, the translational motion of center
of mass can be dealt with separately, as a motion of a
point object

Let us consider the rotational part or motion

1
TR mi (ri ' ) 2
2 i

1 1 2
T mi (ri ' ) ( R) M
2

2 i 2
 5.3
Rotational kinetic energy
1 1 1
TR mi (ri ' ) mi ri 'ri ' mi ( ri ' ) ( ri ' )
2

2 i 2 i 2 i

Rate of change of a vector (r ' ) (r ' ) r '
i s i r i

For a rigid body, in the rotating frame of reference,

all the distances between the points of the rigid body
are fixed:
(ri ' ) r 0 (ri ' ) s ri '
Rotational kinetic energy:
1 3

TR mi ( ri ' ) ( ri ' ) mi ( ri ' ) j ( ri ' ) j
1
2 i 2 i j 1

3
1 3 3
mi jkl k ri 'l jmnm ri 'n

j 1 k ,l 1

2 i m , n 1
 5.3
Rotational kinetic energy
jkl jmn
3
3 3 3
1
TR mi jkl k ri 'l jmnm ri 'n

j 1 k ,l 1
j 1
2 i m ,n 1 km l n lm kn
3
1
mi jkl jmnk m ri 'l ri 'n
2 i j ,k ,l ,m,n1 3
1
mi ( km l n lm kn )k m ri 'l ri 'n
2 i k ,l ,m,n1
1 3 3

mi (k ) (ri 'l ) k ri 'k ri 'l l
2 2

2 i k ,l 1 k ,l 1
1 3 1 3
~ I
k l mi [(ri ' ) kl ri 'k ri 'l ] k I kl l
2

2 k ,l 1 i 2 k ,l 1 2
I kl mi [( ri ' ) kl ri 'k ri 'l ]
2

i
 5.3
Inertia tensor and moment of inertia
~ I

TR I kl mi [( ri ' ) 2 kl ri 'k ri 'l ]
2 i

(3x3) matrix I is called the inertia tensor

Inertia tensor is a symmetric matrix (only 6

independent elements):
I kl I lk
For a rigid body with a continuous distribution of
density, the definition of the inertia tensor is as
follows:
kl
I [( r ) 2 r r ]dV
V
kl k l

Introducing a notation ~ ~
I n In I 2

n TR
2 2 2
I ~In
n
Scalar I is called the moment of inertia
 5.3
Inertia tensor and moment of inertia
I 2
TR
2
On the other hand:
2

1
TR mi ( ri ' ) ( ri ' ) mi (n ri ' ) (n ri ' )
2 i 2 i

Therefore

I mi (n ri ' ) (n ri ' )
i

The moment of inertia depends upon the position

and direction of the axis of rotation
 5.3
Parallel axis theorem
For a constrained rigid body, the rotation may occur
not around the center of mass, but around some
other point 0, fixed at a given moment of time

Then, the moment of inertia about the axis of

rotation is:

I 0 mi (n ri ) (n ri ) mi (n (ri ' R)) (n (ri ' R))
i i

2 ri ri ' R
mi (n ri ' ) 2 mi (n ri ' ) (n R)
i i
2
mi (n R) I CM
i
2
2(n mi ri ') (n R) (n R) M
i
 5.3
Parallel axis theorem
2
I 0 I CM M (n R)

Parallel axis theorem: the moment of inertia about a

given axis is equal to the moment of inertia about a
parallel axis through the center of mass plus the
moment of inertia of the body, as if concentrated at
the center of mass, with respect to the original axis
 5.1
Parallel axis theorem
Does the change of axes affect the vector?

Let us consider two systems of coordinates defined

with respect to two different
points
of the rigid body:
x1y1z1 and x2y2z2 R R R
2 1

Then ( R2 ) s ( R1 ) s ( R ) s ( R1 ) s ( R) r 1 R

Similarly ( R1 ) s ( R2 ) s ( R ) s

( R2 ) s ( R) r 2 R

( R2 ) s ( R1 ) s 1 R

(1 2 ) R 0

( R1 ) s ( R2 ) s 2 R
 5.1
Parallel axis theorem

(1 2 ) R 0
Any difference in vectors at two arbitrary points
must be parallel to the line joining two points

It is not possible for all the points of the rigid body

Then, the only possible case:

1 2

The angular velocity vector

is the same for all coordinate
systems fixed in the body
 5.3
Example: inertia tensor of a
homogeneous cube
Let us consider a homogeneous cube of mass M
and side a

Let us choose the origin at one of cubes corners

Then I kl [( r ) 2 kl rk rl ]dV
V
a a a a a a
I11 [( r ) 2 r1r1 ]dr1dr2 dr3 [( r2 ) 2 (r3 ) 2 ]dr1dr2 dr3
0 0 0 0 0 0

a a 5 2
a [( r2 ) 2 (r3 ) 2 ]dr2 dr3
2 a

2 Ma I 22 I 33
0 0 3 3
 5.3
Example: inertia tensor of a
homogeneous cube
I kl [( r ) 2 kl rk rl ]dV
V

a 5
a a a a a
Ma 2
I12 [r1r2 ]dr1dr2 dr3 a [r1r2 ]dr1dr2
0 0 0 0 0 4 4
I12 I 21 I13 I 31 I 23 I 32
2 1 1
3
4 4
1 2 1
I Ma 2
4 3 4
1
1 2
4 4 3
 5.1
Angular momentum of a rigid body
Angular momentum of a system of particles is:

L mi (ri ri )
i
Rate of change of a vector (ri ) s (ri ) r ri

For a rigid body, in the rotating frame of reference,

all the distances between the points of the rigid body
are fixed:
(ri ) r 0 (r ) r
i s i

Angular momentum of rigid body: L mi (ri ( ri ))
3 3 i
L j mi jkl rik lmnm rin
k ,l 1
i m , n 1 3
jkl lmnrik rinm mi
i k ,l , m, n 1
 5.1
Angular momentum of a rigid body
3
Lj r r m mi
jkl lmn ik in
i k ,l , m , n 1
3
( jn km )rik rinm mi
jm kn
i k , m , n 1
3 3
k mi [( ri ) jk rij rik ] I jk k
2

k 1 i k 1

L I
Rotational kinetic energy:

~ ~ ~
I L L
TR
2 2 2
 5.5
5.6
Free rigid body
For a free rigid body, the Lagrangian is:
3
1 1
1
2 i
2 1
L T mi (ri ' ) ( R) M
2
2

2 k ,l 1
I
k kl l
2
(
R ) 2
M

Recall i dt di
1 3
Then L k I kl
T
l CM
2 k ,l 1
We separate the Lagrangian into two independent
parts and consider the rotational part separately

Then, the equations of motion for rotation

d LR LR d 3 d 3
I ik k 0
I ik k 0

dt i dt k 1 dt k 1
i
 5.5
5.6
Free rigid body

d 3 dLi dL
I ik k 0 0 0
dt k 1 dt dt

Angular momentum of a free rigid body is constant

In the system of coordinates fixed with the rotating

rigid body, the tensor of inertia is a constant it is
often convenient to rewrite the equations of motion in
the rotating frame of reference:

dL dL d 3 3
L 0
dt dt I ik k ikl k Ll 0
s r dt k 1 k ,l 1
3 3

I
k 1
ik k
k ,l , m 1
I k l 0
ikl ml
 5.4
Principal axes of inertia
Inertia tensor is a symmetric matrix

In a general case, such matrices can be

diagonalized we are looking for a system of
coordinates fixed to a rigid body, in which the inertia
tensor has a form: I1 0 0

I 0 I2 0
0 0 I 3
To diagonalize the inertia tensor, we have to find the
solutions of a secular equation
I11 I I12 I13
I 21 I 22 I I 23 0
I 31 I 32 I 33 I
 5.4
Principal axes of inertia
Coordinate axes, in which the inertia tensor is
diagonal, are called the principal axes of a rigid body;
the eigenvalues of the secular equations are the
components of the principal moment of inertia

After diagonalization of the inertia tensor, the

equations of motion for rotation of a free rigid body
look like 3
I i i
j , k 1
ijk j k I k 0

After diagonalization of the inertia tensor, the

rotational kinetic energy a rigid body looks like
1 3
TR I i i
2

2 i 1
 5.4
Principal axes of inertia
To find the directions of the principal axes we have
to find the directions for the eigenvectors

When the rotation occurs around one of the

principal axes In, there is only one non-zero
component n

In this case, the angular momentum has only one

component
Lk I k k kn

In this case, the rotational kinetic energy has only

one term 2
1 3
I n n
TR in I i i
2

2 i 1 2
 5.6
Stability of a free rotational motion
Let us choose the body axes along the principal
axes of a free rotating rigid body

Let us assume that the rotation axis is slightly off

the direction of one of the principal axes ( - small
parameter):

1i1 2i2 3i3
3
i
Then, the equations of motion I i
j , k 1
ijk j k I k 0

I1 1 2 3 ( I 3 I 2 ) 0 I1 1 2 3 ( I 3 I 2 ) 0
I 2 2 13 ( I1 I 3 ) 0 I 22 1 3 ( I1 I 3 ) 0
I 3 3 12 ( I 2 I1 ) 0 I 33 1 2 ( I 2 I1 ) 0
 5.6
Stability of a free rotational motion
I1 1 2 3 ( I 3 I 2 ) 0 1 0
I 22 1 3 ( I1 I 3 ) 0 I1 I 3
2 1 3 0
I 33 1 2 ( I 2 I1 ) 0 I2
I 2 I1
3 1 2 0
I3
1 const
2
1
2(3) 2(3) ( I1 I 2 )( I1 I 3 ) 0
I 2 I3

2
1
2(3) 2(3) K 0 K ( I1 I 2 )( I1 I 3 )
I 2 I3
 5.6
Stability of a free rotational motion
2
1
2(3) 2(3) K 0 K ( I1 I 2 )( I1 I 3 )
I 2 I3
The behavior of solutions of this equation depends
on the relative values of the principal moments of
inertia 0
2

I1 I 2 ; I1 I 3
2( 3) 2(3)

K 0 K 2
I1 I 2 ; I1 I 3
2(3) A2(3) cos( t 2(3) )
Always stable
2(3) 2(3) 0
2

I 3 I1 I 2
K 0 K 2 2(3) A2(3)et
I 2 I1 I 3
Exponentially unstable 2(3) A2(3)et
 Classification of tops
Depending on the relative values of the principle
values of inertia, rigid body can be classified as
follows:

Asymmetrical top: I1 I 2 I 3

Symmetrical top: I1 I 2 I 3

Spherical top: I1 I 2 I 3

Rotator: I1 I 2 0; I 3 0
 Example: principal axes of a uniform
cube
Previously, we have found the inertia tensor for a
uniform cube with the origin at one of the corners,
and the coordinate axes along the edges:
2 1 1
3 2 Ma 2
I
Ma 2

Ma 2
4 4
1 2 1
3 4 4
I Ma 2 Ma 2 2 Ma 2
Ma 2
I 0
4 3 4 4 3 4
1 2 Ma 2 Ma 2 2
1 2Ma
4 I
4 3 4 4 3
The secular equation:
11Ma 2
2Ma 2 2
M 2 a 4 Ma 2 2Ma 2
I I I 0
12 3 8 4 3
 Example: principal axes of a uniform
cube
2Ma 2
2
11Ma 2 M 2 a 4 Ma 2 2Ma 2
I I I 0
12 3 8 4 3
2 2
11Ma 2 11Ma Ma
I1 I2 ; I3
12 12 6
To find the directions of the principal axes we have
to find the directions for the eigenvectors
Ma 2
Let us consider I 3
6
13

3 23
I3 I 3 13
33
 Example: principal axes of a uniform
cube
2Ma 2 Ma 2 Ma 2 Ma 2 213 23
13 23 33 13 1
3 4 4 6 33 33
Ma 2 2Ma 2 Ma 2 Ma 2 13 223
13 23 33 23 1
4 3 4 6 33 33
Ma 2 Ma 2 2Ma 2 Ma 2 13 23
13 23 33 33 2
4 4 3 6 33 33

13 23
13 23 33
13 33
 5.6
Free symmetrical top
I1 1 2 3 ( I 3 I 2 ) 0
3
I i i
j , k 1
ijk j k I k 0 I 2 2 13 ( I1 I 3 ) 0
I 3 3 12 ( I 2 I1 ) 0
For a free symmetrical top:
I1 I 2 I 3 I1 1 2 3 ( I 3 I1 ) 0
I1 2 13 ( I1 I 3 ) 0
3 ( I1 I 3 )
1 2 I 3 3 0
I1
3 ( I1 I 3 )
2 1
I1
3 const 3 ( I1 I 3 )
2 1 A cos t
1 1
1 2 2 A sin t
I1
 5.5
Motion of non-free rigid bodies
How to tackle rigid bodies that move in the presence
of a potential or in an open system with generalized
forces (torques)?

Many Lagrangian problems of such types allow

separation of the Lagrangians into two independent
parts: the center-of-mass and the rotational

For the non-Lagrangian (open) systems, we modify

the equations of motion via introduction of
generalized forces (torques) N:
3
I i i
j , k 1
ijk j k I k Ni
 5.7
4.9
Heavy symmetrical top with one point
fixed
For this problem, it is convenient to use the Euler
angles as a set of independent variables

Let us express the components of as functions of

the Euler angles

The general infinitesimal rotation associated with

can be considered as consisting of three successive
infinitesimal rotations with angular velocities

; ;
 4.9
Heavy symmetrical top with one point
fixed
x BX BCx' ' BCDx' Ax'

0 0
x
0 0

y A

z


sin sin
x

y cos sin
z cos
cos cos cos sin sin cos sin cos cos sin sin sin
A sin cos cos sin cos sin sin cos cos cos cos sin
sin sin sin cos cos
 4.9
Heavy symmetrical top with one point
fixed
x BX BCx' ' BCDx' Ax'
x

0
y B 0
0 z 0

cos
x

y sin
z 0
cos sin 0
B sin cos 0
0 0 1
 4.9
Heavy symmetrical top with one point
fixed
x BX BCx' ' BCDx' Ax'
0 x 0 x cos
0
y 0 y sin
z z 0
x sin sin
y cos sin
z cos
 4.9
Heavy symmetrical top with one point
fixed


x 0 x cos
y 0 y sin
sin sin cos
z z 0

cos sin sin
cos x sin sin

y cos sin
z cos
 5.7
Heavy symmetrical top with one point
fixed
m r MR i
i i

The Lagrangian: L T V
T TTranslation TRotation I1 (1 2 ) I 33
2 2 2

2 2

V r gdV g r dV g RM
Using the Euler angles

V gRM cos

I1 I 2
 5.7
Heavy symmetrical top with one point
sin sin cos
fixed
cos sin sin
2
cos
I 33
2
I1 (1 2 ) I 3 ( cos )
2 2
T
2 2 2

( cos sin sin ) 2 ( sin sin cos ) 2

I1
2
( cos ) 2 2 sin 2 2
I3 I1
2 2

V gRM cos
 5.7
Heavy symmetrical top with one point
fixed
( cos ) 2 2 sin 2 2
L I3 I1 gRM cos
2 2
The Lagrangian is cyclic in two coordinates
L L
0; 0

Thus, we have two conserved generalized momenta
L
p I 3 ( cos 2 cos ) I1 ( sin 2 ) const I1b

L
p I 3 ( cos ) const I1a

 5.7
Heavy symmetrical top with one point
fixed
( cos ) 2 2 sin 2 2
L I3 I1 gRM cos
2 2
L
The Lagrangian does not contain time explicitly 0
t
Thus, the total energy of the system is conserved
( cos ) 2 2 sin 2 2
E I3 I1 gRM cos const
2 2
To solve the problem completely, we need three
additional quadratures

We will look for them, using the conserved

quantities
 5.7
Heavy symmetrical top with one point
fixed
I 3 ( cos ) I1a I 3 I1a I 3 cos

I 3 ( cos 2 cos ) I1 ( sin 2 ) I1b

I 3 ( cos 2 ) ( I1a cos I 3 cos 2 ) I1 ( sin 2 ) I1b

b a cos f1 ( )
a cos sin 2 b
sin 2
I1
a f1 ( ) cos f 2 ( )
I3
( f1 ( ) cos f 2 ( )) 2 f1 ( ) 2 sin 2 2
E I3 I1 gRM cos
2 2
One variable only: we can find all the quadratures!
 5.7
Heavy symmetrical top with one point
fixed
( f1 ( ) cos f 2 ( )) 2 f1 ( ) 2 sin 2 2
E I3 I1 gRM cos
2 2
I1 2 I 3 ( f1 ( ) cos f 2 ( )) 2 I1 f1 ( ) 2 sin 2
E RMg cos
2 2 2
We have an equivalent 1D problem with an effective
potential!
I 3 ( f1 ( ) cos f 2 ( )) 2 I1 f1 ( ) 2 sin 2
Veff ( ) RMg cos
2 2
( I1a) 2 I1 (b a cos ) 2
gRM cos
2I3 2 sin
2

I1 (b a cos ) 2
Veff ' ( ) gRM cos I ( cos ) I a
2 sin
2
3 1
 5.7
Heavy symmetrical top with one point
fixed
I1 2 d
2
2[ E 'Veff ' ( )]
E' Veff ' ( )
2 dt I1
d
t ( )
2 / I1[ E 'Veff ' ( )]
In the most general case, the integration involves
elliptic functions

Effective potential is a function with

a minimum: motion in is bound by
two values
 5.7
Heavy symmetrical top with one point
fixed
When is at its minimum, we have a precession

Otherwise, the top is bobbing: nutation

The shape of the nutation trajectory depends on the

behavior of the time derivative of

b a cos

sin 2
 5.9
Charged rigid body in an
electromagnetic field
mi (ri , x 2 ri , y 2 ri , z 2 )
L qi (ri ) qi (ri A)

i 2

Let us consider the following vector potential (C
constant
vector) 3

A Cr Ai (C r )i
j , k 1
ijk C j rk
How is magnetic field related to vector C?
3
Ai
B A Bn ( A) n
m ,i 1
nmi
rm
3
rk 3
rk
nmi ijkC j ( nj mk nk mj )C j
i , j , k , m 1 rm j , k , m 1 rm
 5.9
Charged rigid body in an
electromagnetic field
3
rk
Bn ( nj mk nk mj )C j
j , k , m 1 rm
3
rm 3 rn 3
Cn Cm 3Cn Cm mn 2Cn Bn
m 1 rm m1 rm m 1

B Br
C A
2 2
Constant magnetic field

mi (ri , x ri , y
2 2
ri , z )
2
B ri
L qi (ri ) qi ri


i 2 2
 5.9
Charged rigid body in an
electromagnetic field

mi (ri , x ri , y ri , z )
2 2 2
q B r
L qi (ri ) ri i i

i 2 2

qi B ri qi B
i ri 2 i 2m (ri ri mi )
i
Let us assume a uniform charge/mass ratio

qB qB (q / m)B
~
(ri ri mi ) L L
2m i 2m 2
Recall rotational kinetic energy
~L

TR
2 a (b c ) b (c a )
 5.4
Radius of gyration
FYI: radius of gyration is

I
R0
M

I 2 M ( R0 ) 2
I MR0
2
TR
2 2