Particle Accelerators:

introduction

Erik Adli, University of Oslo, August 2015, Erik.Adli@cern.ch , v2.11

 Video: the LHC accelerator

youtube: the LHC Accelerator

Experimental High-Energy Particle Physics

Event rate in ATLAS :

N = L x (pp) 109 interactions/s
Mostly soft ( low pT ) events

Interesting hard (high-pT ) events are rare

3
Particle accelerators for HEP
LHC: the world largest accelerator,
both in energy and size)
First collisions end 2009
Gradual commissioning with steadily
increased luminosity and CM energy
27 fb-1 integrated luminosity delivered
to the ATLAS up to 2014
lead to the Higgs Boson discovery
Future colliders for HEP
The next big thing? After LHC, a high
energy, high luminosity Linear Collider
of several 10 km length, may be
needed why?
Particle collider Livingstone plot

CLIC

ILC

Way forward?
 Others accelerators
The driving force of accelerator development was high-
energy physics experiments
Today there are estimated to be more than 30'000
particle accelerators in the world, and only a fraction
is used in HEP
Over half of them used in medicine
Accelerator physics: a scientific discipline in itself,
and growing field
Some examples of particle accelerators for various
applications on the following pages
 Medical applications

Therapy
The last decades: electron
accelerators (converted to X-ray via a
target) used successfully for cancer
radiation therapy

Increasing popularity : particle

therapy/hadron therapy - direct use
of proton/ion beams - provide an
improved alternative for various types
of cancer. Energy deposition can be
controlled better, however, significant
accelerator physics challenges

Imaging
Isotope production for PET scanners
 Advantages of hadron therapy

From U. Amaldi
 Hadron therapy accelerators
Beam transport lines
Synchrotron

Linear
accelerator
25 m
Beam delivery (gantry size)

Heidelberg Ion-Beam Therapy Center (HIT)

State of the art of commercial hadron therapy

centers. Can particle accelerator R&D drive size
and cost down?
 Synchrotron Light Sources
Synchrotron radiation emitted from accelerated charged particles can
produce very intense radiation at X-ray frequencies
The last decades, vast increase in the use of synchrony radiation for photon
science. Some uses: material sciences; life sciences; earth sciences.

Synchrotron radiation Radiation from ultra-relativistic

electrons: forward direction.
covered later in the course.

Soleil, France
 Neutron spallation sources (ESS)

Neutron spallation sources: intense flux of protons at high energies.

Lund, Sweden: building Europes first neutron spallation source, the European
Spallation Source, using superconducting technology.
Thorium - Accelerator Driven Systems
 Advanced acceleration research
Cutting edge accelerator physics research. The target is to overcome the limitations in conventional rf based
accelerator technology.
 Plasma wakefield acceleration
Ideas of ~100 GV/m electric fields in plasma, using 1018 W/cm2 lasers: 1979
T.Tajima and J.M.Dawson (UCLA), Laser Electron Accelertor, Phys. Rev. Lett. 43,
267270 (1979)
PWFA: plasma wakefield acceleration

Drive a wake in plasma by the space

charge field of an intense charged
particle beam (beam-driven) or by
the radiation pressure of an intense
laser beam (laser-driven).

* Typical plasma densities: 1014-18/cm3

* Length scales: lp~10-1000 um
* Plasma usually modeled as collisionless

We will treat this topic in separate lectures in October

 Accelerator Physics
Accelerator physics deals with the dynamics of charged particle beams, under the effect of
collective electromagnetic forces in an accelerator. Extensive research in accelerator physics
is in order to advance the high-energy particle physics. Proud Norwegian tradition :

RolfWidere BjrnWiik
Professorogdirektrved
Pioneerbdefor Europasneststrste
betatronprinsippetogfor OddDahl akseleratorsenter(DESYi
linereakseleratorer Hamburg)
LederavCERNPSprosjektet
(enviktigdelavLHC
KjellJohnsen
kompleksetdendagidag) LederavCERNISR,oglederav
CERN'sgruppefor
akseleratorforskning
Basic description of charged
particle beams
 Single particle coordinates
We usually describe particle movement in a particle
accelerator in a frame co-moving with a reference position at
the beam center
The state of a particle is characterized by the deviation from
the reference position along the three spatial dimensions,
(x, y, z) y
and their complementary dimensions, for example
(x dx/ds, y dy/ds, E). py ydy/ds

The choices are not unique. pz

The coordinates are usually given in the laboratory frame z

s: co-ordinate
along accelerator
 Its about a beam, in 6D
y(x, y, z)

Any charged particle beams, taken at a given point in time, can be characterized as a
distribution in 6D phase space.
Description in terms of moments
 Discrete distributions

We may also use representations where each particles have different weight, in
case the weight of each particle enters the above formulas.
Gaussian distributions
 Example distribution
The following example 6D distribution is from a simulation of an electron photo-injector line :

y(x, y, z) y(x, y, E)

Some questions one may ask:

What are the rms beam sizes?

What are the correlations?

 Example distribution
y(x, y)

y(x, y, z)

y(x) y(y)
Gaussian fit beam sizes
x = 9.4 um, y = 5.6 um

correlations
<x y> 0
 Example distribution
The two transverse planes are often to a large degree uncoupled <x y> = 0.

However, evidently the position and the angle of particles in a given plane are
dynamically coupled, and the correlation <x x>, <y y> will change as the beam
evolves in time. Below: the effect of letting the beam propagate in free space,
from a time t1 to a time t2 :

y phase space at t=t1. <y y> 0 y phase space at t=t2 . <y y> > 0
 Beta function and emittance
Evolution of the transverse phase-space in free space along the beamline :

= (eb (s))

Two key concepts that defines a

charged particle beam:
Beta function, b(s): how well the beam is focussed. Minimum, b*, at the beam waist.
Emittance, e: beam quality, phase-space area; e = (<y2><y2> - <y y>2)
 Charged particle propagation
versus laser beam propagation
Beam propagates in s direction
s s

Charged particle beams : Gaussian laser beams :

- b* represents focus depth and strength - Rayleigh length ZR <-> b*
- Emittance, e, is conserved (when?) - Wavelength l <-> 4pe
- At waist: e = (<y2><y2>) = *y y - e = ~ w0 q
- Evolution along beamline, s, given by : - Evolution along beam path, s, given by :

In the transverse optics part of the course we will treat this topic in detail.
Beam Parameters
 Main parameters to characterize
a charged particle beam
Particle type
Energy, energy spectrum
Emittance
Focusing Luminosity
Charge per time
Time structure

Requirements from a High-Energy Physics point of view

 Requirements: Energy
Energy requirement for pair production:

1996 2012 Ephoton=2mec2+Ek

1983
1974 1977
1975
Heavy new particles: typically
heavier than the previously
1936 discovered more energetic
1968 collisions are required.
ECOM = mc2
Probe wavelength: Particles are
1897
waves. Wavelength of probe should
be smaller than the object you want
to study. DeBrogliewavelength:
l=h/p
(~ 1 for 100 MeV e-)
Energy : fixed target versus colliding beams

Colliding beams are

needed in order to reach
the highest center of mass
energies.
 Requirements: particle type
Hadron production from
Lepton collisions: elementary particles (leptons, muons) lepton collisions
Collision process known
Well defined energy
Lepton collisions precision measurement

Hadron collisions: compound particles (protons, ions)

Mix of quarks, anti-quarks and gluons: variety of processes
Parton energy spread Lepton production from
Hadron collisions large discovery range hadron collisions

If you know what to look for, collide leptons, if not collide hadrons
 Requirements: luminosity
High energy is not enough, production rate are as important,
because the events we are looking for are rare.
The probability for particle physics processes to occur are quantified
by cross section, , an area, with units in barns, b = 10-28 m2.
In particle collisions, the higher the cross section, and the more
collisons per second, the higher reaction rate R for a given process
is :

R L
The proportional factor, L, called the luminosity [cm-2s-1],
depends on the colliding beam parameters as :
n1n2
L f
* n1, n2 :particles per bunch
* x, y : bunch transverse size
4p x y at the interaction point
* bunch collision rate ( f)
 Requirements: time structure
Time structure may be driven by accelerator (collective effects) and/or
detector (read-out) constraints.
Circular collider time structure : constant collision rate
Example for LHC, nominal parameters LHC: four collision points
- charge delivered in bunches at 25 ns spacing
- 16 nC charge in each bunch 2800 bunches in
each beam,
colliding at 40
GHz

Linear collider time structure : charge delivered in micro-bunched pulses

Example for the International Linear Collider (500 GeV high lum.)
- charge delivered in pulses of 1 ms, at 5 Hz
- 3 nC charge in each micro-bunch
Parameters: LEP, LHC and CLIC
CERN-based colliders, nominal parameters :

LEP LHC CLIC

Particle type e+ and e- p, ions (Pb, Au) e+ and e-

Max. collision 209 GeV p: 14 TeV 3 TeV

energy (~
2-3 TeV mass
reach, depending
on physics)
Time structure 4 bunches 2800 bunches 312 micro-
circulating, 50 circulating, 40 bunches, colliding
MHz collsion rate GHz collision rate at 50 Hz repeition
rate
Luminosity Peak: 1032 cm-2s-1 1034 cm-2s-1 1034 cm-2s-1
Integrated L in (IP1 / IP5)
total : ~ 1000 pb-1 Integrated L up to
(per experiment) now : ~ 27 fb-1
(per experiment)
 Accelerator lectures for FYS4550
Accelerator types, main parameters, basic Concepts
Acceleration and Longitudinal Dynamics
Basic Transverse Dynamics (single particle)
Advanced Transverse Dynamics (multiple particles)
Synchrotron radiation and collective effects
Linear colliders and CLIC
Advanced Accelerator Research with focus on plasma wakefield acceleration

At CERN
Visit to the CERN accelerator complex, LHC injectors and linear collider test
facilities

Focus: accelerators for high-energy physics, with thus emphasize high-

energy accelerators, especially synchrotrons and linear colliders
Goal: understand the basics of why and how we accelerate particles,
plus the challenges and the limitations