 3 Properties of an Analog Signal:

 amplitude
 frequency
Angle
 phase Modulation

 Angle Modulation – FM & PM

- often referred to as simply FM,
although there are actual
distinctions between the two
 Angle Modulation vs. Amplitude Modulation
 Advantages:
- Noise Immunity
- Noise Performance and Signal-to-Noise
Improvement
- Capture Effect
- Power Utilization and Efficiency
 Disadvantages:
- Bandwidth
- Circuit Complexity and cost
Angle Modulation
- first introduced in 1931 as an alternative to
amplitude modulation
- Major E.H. Armstrong, 1936
- July 1939, Alpine, New Jersey
- commercial radio broadcasting, television sound
transmission, two-way mobile radio, cellular radio,
microwave and satellite communications systems
 Angle Modulation
- results whenever the phase angle () of a sinusoidal
wave is varied with respect to time.
m(t) = Vc cos [ ct + (t) ] eq. 1

where: m(t) = angle-modulated wave

Vc = peak-carrier amplitude (volts)
c = carrier radian frequency (rad/sec, 2fc)
(t) = instantaneous phase deviation (radians)
 - with angle modulation, it is necessary that (t) be a
prescribed function of the modulating signal.

(t) = F [m(t)] eq.2

where: m(t) = Vm sin(mt) – modulating signal

m = angular velocity of the modulating
signal (rad/sec, 2fm)
fm = modulating signal frequency (Hz)
Vm = peak amplitude of the modulating
signal (volts)
 Difference between FM & PM
- lies in which property of the carrier is directly varied
by the modulating signal and which property is indirectly
varied.
Direct Frequency Modulation (FM) : Varying the
frequency of a constant-amplitude carrier directly
proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal at a
rate equal to the frequency of the modulating signal.
Direct Phase Modulation (PM): Varying the phase of a
constant-amplitude carrier directly proportional to the
amplitude of the modulating signal at a rate equal to the
frequency of the modulating signal.
 Angle-Modulated Wave in the Frequency Domain

f – frequency shift
Magnitude and Direction – proportional to the amplitude and polarity of the
modulating signal
Rate at which frequency changes – equal to the frequency of the modulating
signal
 Angle Modulation in Time Domain(Phase Changing with
Time)  - phase deviation , reference angular
displacement of the carrier in radian in
respect to the reference phase

f – frequency deviation, relative

displacement of the carrier frequency in
hertz in respect to its unmodulated value

 & f – magnitude is proportional to the

amplitude of the modulating signal and rate
at which the changes are occurring is equal
to the modulating frequency
 Angle Modulation in the Time Domain (Frequency
Changing with Time)

f- is changed or deviated
over a period of time

Tmin – maximum frequency

Tmax – minimum frequency

 Angle Modulation in the Time Domain

Resultant Angle-Modulated Waveform – carrier rests frequency

and an infinite no. of pairs of side frequencies displaced on either
side of the carrier by an integral multiple of the modulating signal
frequency.
 Mathematical Analysis
1. Instantaneous Phase Deviation
- the instantaneous change in the phase
of the carrier at a given instant of time and
indicates how much the phase of the carrier is
changing with respect to its reference phase.
instantaneous phase deviation = (t) rad eq 3
 2. Instantaneous Phase
- the precise phase of the carrier at a
given instant of time
instantaneous phase = ct + (t) rad eq 4
where: ct = carrier reference phase (radians)
= [ 2 (rad/cycle)] [ fc (cycles/sec)] [t (sec)]
fc = carrier frequency (Hz)
(t) = instantaneous phase deviation (radians)
 3. Instantaneous Frequency Deviation
- the instantaneous change in the frequency of the
carrier and is defined as the first time derivative of
the instantaneous phase deviation
instantaneous frequency deviation = ’(t) rad/sec eq 4
’(t) rad/sec cycles
2 rad/cycle sec
= = = Hz
“ ‘ “ = first derivative with respect to time
4. Instantaneous Frequency
- the precise frequency of the carrier at a
given instant of time and is defined as the first
time derivative of the instantaneous phase.
instantaneous frequency = i(t) = d/dt [ct + (t)] eq 6a
= c(t)+ ’(t) rad/sec eq 6b
instantaneous frequency = fit
i(t) = ( 2 rad/cycle) (fc cycles/sec) + ’(t)
2 fc + ’(t) rad/sec fc + ’(t) cycles
2 rad/cycle 2 sec =
=
fc + ’(t)
2= eq 6c
Hz
 Deviation Sensitivity
 Phase Modulation – can be defined as angle modulation in
which instantaneous phase deviation [(t)] is proportional to
the amplitude of the modulating signal voltage and the
instantaneous frequency deviation is proportional to the slope
or first derivative of the modulating signal.
 Frequency Modulation – angle modulation in which the
instantaneous frequency deviation [’(t)] is proportional to the
amplitude of the modulating signal and the instantaneous phase
deviation is proportional to the integral of the modulating
signal voltage.
 For a modulating signal mt:
PM = (t) = K mt rad eq 7
FM = ’(t) = K1 mt rad/sec eq 8

where: K and K1 = constants

= deviation sensitivities of the
phase and frequency
modulators, respectively
 Deviation Sensitivities
- the output vs. input transfer functions for the modulators,
which give the relationship between what output parameter
changes in respect to specified changes in the input signal.
Frequency Modulator : changes would occur in the output
frequency in respect to changes in the amplitude of the input
voltage
Phase Modulator : changes would occur in the phase of the
output frequency in respect to changes in the amplitude of
the input voltage
 Deviation Sensitivity
Phase Modulator:
K = rad/V ( /V)
Frequency Modulator:
K1 = rad/sec /V or rad/V-sec (/ V)
 Phase Modulation is the first integral of the
frequency modulation.
PM = (t) =  ’(t) dt
=  K1 m (t) dt
= K1  m(t) dt eq 9
Substituting a modulating signal m(t) = Vm cos (mt) into eq 1
m(t) = Vc cos [ct + (t)]
= Vc cos [ct + KVm cos (mt) eq 10
 For FM:
m(t)= Vc cos [ct + ’(t) ]
= Vc cos [ct + K1 m(t) dt]
= Vc cos [ct + K1  Vm cos (mt) dt]
= Vc cos [ct + K1 Vm/m sin (mt) ] eq 11
 Equations for Phase and Frequency
Modulated Carriers
 FM & PM Waveforms
Unmodulated
Carrier

Modulating Signal

Frequency
-Modulated Wave

Phase-Modulated
Wave
 FM – the maximum frequency deviation (change in the
carrier frequency) occurs during the maximum positive
and negative peaks of the modulating signal.
 PM – the maximum frequency deviation occurs during
the zero crossings of the modulating signal.
 FM & PM – the rate at which the frequency changes
occur is equal to the modulating signal frequency.
 Phase Deviation and Modulation Index
general form :
m(t) = Vc cos [ct + m cos (mt) ] eq 12
where: m cos (mt) = instantaneous phase deviation,
(t)
m = peak phase deviation in radians (phase-
modulated carrier
= modulation index (index of modulation)
 PM : m = proportional to the amplitude of the
modulating signal, independent of its frequency
m = KVm eq 13
where: m = modulation index and peak phase
deviation (, rad)
K = deviation sensitivity (radians/volt)
Vm = peak modulating-signal amplitude
(volts)
 m = K (rad/volt) Vm (volts) = radians
PM equations:
m(t) = Vc cos [ct + KVm cos (mt) ] eq 14a
= Vc cos [ct +  cos (mt) ] eq 14b
= Vc cos [ct + m cos (mt) ] eq 14c
 FM: m = directly proportional to the amplitude
of the modulating signal and inversely
proportional to the frequency of the modulating
signal.
m = K1 Vm/ m (unitless) eq 15
where: m = modulation index (unitless)
K1 = deviation sensitivity (rad/V-sec)
Vm = peak modulating-signal amplitude (V)
m= radian frequency (radians/sec)
 K1 (rad/volt-sec) Vm (volt)
m= = unitless
m (radians/sec)

In Hertz: m = K1 Vm/ fm (unitless) eq 16

K1 (hertz/volt) Vm (volt)
m= = unitless
fm (hertz)
 Frequency Deviation
- the change in frequency that occurs in the
carrier when it is acted on by a modulating-signal
frequency.
- peak frequency shift (f) in hertz
Carrier Swing – peak-to-peak frequency deviation
- (2f )
f = K1Vm (Hz) eq 17
thus, m = f (Hz) / fm (Hz) (unitless) eq 18

FM equations:
m(t) = Vc cos [ct + K1Vm /fm sin (mt) ] eq 19a
m(t) = Vc cos [ct + f / fm sin (mt) ] eq 19b
m(t) = Vc cos [ct + m sin (mt) ] eq 19c
Angle-Modulation Summary
 Modulation Index vs. Amplitude
 Frequency Deviation vs. Modulating
Frequency
 Phase Deviation vs. Amplitude
 Frequency Deviation vs. Amplitude
 Percent Modulation
- determined in a different manner than it was
with an amplitude-modulated wave
- ratio of the frequency deviation actually
produced to the maximum frequency deviation
allowed by law stated in percent form
% modulation = f(actual) / f (max) x 100%