CE 415

Building Materials

L T P C
3 0 0 3

Dr. Saladi S.V. Subbarao

Assistant Professor
 Module 1
Introduction to building materials
Civil engineering background Role of civil engineers
in society
Functions of buildings role of materials in
construction
Classification of materials requirements selection of
materials
Properties of materials Physical, mechanical,
chemical, biological, aesthetical
 Module 2
Stones, Bricks and Cement
Building Stones types requirements tests
Bricks and tiles classification - manufacturing -
characteristics tests ceramic tiles paving blocks
Cement manufacturing processes properties types
- tests
 Module 3
Floor and Roofing material
Floors types floor finishes
Roofs types materials used steel, aluminum,
asbestos, GI sheets light weight roofing materials
Glass types and uses
Wood types and uses defects preservative
treatments wood composites
 Module 4
Modern building materials
Modern materials Neoprene, thermocole, decorative
panels and laminates, architectural glass and ceramics,
ferrocement, PVC, polymer base materials, fibre
reinforced plastics,
etc
..
 Module 5
Construction components
Principles of construction - Masonry brick, stone and
block masonry
Surface finishes pointing and plastering materials -
Paints and varnishes types and uses
Damp proof course (DPC) anti-termite measures and
treatments
Construction joints need and materials used
Scaffolding and centering
 Reference books
Engineering materials by S.C. Rangwala
Fundamental building materials by Ken Ward-Harvey
Materials of construction by Ghosh
Building Construction by Arora.S.P & Bindra.S.P.
Concrete Technology by Shetty, M.S
Building construction by B.C. Punmia
 Module 1
Introduction to Building materials
 Civil Engineering
John Smeaton, who was the builder of Eddystone light
house near Plymouth, England called himself a Civil
Engineer
Opened: 1882
Height: 49 m
Material: Masonry,
Wood
 Civil Engineering
Civil engineering is the oldest branch of
engineering (next to military engineering).

Civil engineering deals with the design,

construction, and maintenance of structures or
public works as they are related to earth, water
or in space.

Civil Engineering is also known as the mother of

all engineering disciplines.
 Civil Engineering
ASCE defines,
Civil Engineering is the profession in which a
knowledge of the mathematical and physical sciences
gained by study, experience and practice is applied with
judgement to develop ways to utilize economically the
materials and forces of nature for the progressive well-
being of mankind.
 Role of Civil Engineer
The one who improves the quality of life through production
of safe, functional, elegant, economically sound
infrastructure
Buildings, bridges and other structures
Dams and levees
Highways
Water treatments plants, waste disposal
The one who make sure that the wise utilization of
resources Sustainable development
The one who helps to maintain our competitiveness in global
economy by increasing productivity
The one who makes our human habitat livable
 Role of Civil Engineers
Town and city planning
Build suitable structures for the rural and urban areas
for various utilities
Build tanks, dams to exploit water resources
Purify the water and supply water to needy areas
Provide good drainage system and purification plants
Provide and maintain communication systems like
roads, railways, harbours and airports
Monitor land, water and air pollution and take measures
to control them
Different fields of Civil Engineering
Structural Engineering
Building Materials
Construction Technology
Geotechnical Engineering
Architecture & Town Planning
Environmental Engineering
Hydraulics, Water Resource & Irrigation Engineering
Transportation Engineering
Surveying
Remote Sensing & GIS
Impact of Civil engineering on economy
Connecting producing centre to marketing places which
minimizes the exploitation from middlemen
Imports and exports become easy as a result of which
whole world becomes a village
The infrastructure development generates scope for
lots of industries
Manpower is utilized for the benefit of man kind
Antisocial activities come under control
Quality of life of the people is improved
Impact of Civil engineering on economy
Improved education and health care give rise to skilled
and healthy work force
In case of natural calamities assistance can be
extended easily and misery of affected people is
reduced
Infrastructure facility improves defense system and
peace exists in the country
Improved economical power of the country brings a
respectable status in the world
 Introduction to building materials
The function of a building is to provide a desired (may
be controlled or uncontrolled) spatial environment
within it continuously, for a given human activity

The building therefore provides a safe and

comfortable internal environment against the external
and unwanted conditions

The building must accomplish the same economically

Function is to withstand these loads Safely
 Loads

Dead loads (IS 875 Part 1)

Live loads (IS 875 Part 2)

Wind loads (IS 875 Part 3)

Snow loads (IS 875 Part 4)

Earth quake load (IS 1893)

Special load and Load combinations (IS 875 Part 5)

 Comfortable environment
Comfort against natural external environment natural
light, temperature, humidity, precipitation

Comfort against manmade external environment and

internal discomfort noise, pollution, generation of
wastes, odour

Micro-climatic changes caused by human activity

global climatic changes
 Functional requirement of buildings
Furniture and circulation depends on occupancy type
and functional use
Requirement of space depends on furniture and
circulation area
Relationship between the spaces decides the proximity
of spaces
Overall dimensions are decided based on site
conditions, environmental requirements, circulation
and aesthetics etc.
 Classification of buildings
Residential buildings
Educational buildings
Industrial buildings
Commercial buildings
Special institutional buildings
Recreational buildings
Health-related buildings
Transport-related buildings
Hazardous buildings
Assembly buildings
 Role of materials
Two aspects need to be considered:

Safety
Loads are resisted by structural system
The size of member for the material used must be
able to resist the design forces

Functional requirement
Thermal conductivity, expansion, diffusivity
Short wave and long wave emissivity of surfaces
Sound absorption and fire resistance of elements
 Time line of building materials
400,000BC Earth and stone - First earth and stone built
shelters
7,500BC Dried brick - The first mud bricks. (Handmade of
course)
7,000BC Stone and concrete First fortifications build.
Materials included stone concrete with reinforcement.
6,500BC Woven cloth - Native American developments for
temporary shelter.
6,000BC Wattle and Daub - Building with wood and mud for
the non-structural panels of timber buildings.
5,500BC Plaster- Developed by the Egyptians as a decorative
finishing material.
 Time line of building materials (contd.)
5,000BC Timber - Introduction of timber carpentry to
supplement the use of stone.
2,800BC The first dam - Egyptian civil engineering across the
Garawi Valley with a masonry shell filled with earth and
rubble. It didn't last long.
2,500BC The arched bridge - First corbeled arches in stone
2,500BC Glass - The Egyptians provided the first examples
with silica and calcium
2,000BC Fired brick - First appeared in the Middle East.
250BC Metal nail - Roman invention for timber construction.
Each nail forged individually
 Time line of building materials (contd.)
100AD Clear Glass, The dome - Romans added manganese
oxide to the Syrian glass mix of 100BC and Roman stone
100AD Suspension bridge - Chinese development with vines,
ropes and chains.
1709 Coke based iron smelting - Transformed British
industry, and a key part of industrialisation. Used in building
as well as transport sectors.
1790 Nail making machine Automated nail
manufacture. Machinery innovation to the building
industry.
1792 Gas lighting - Coal replaced as a source of light
 Time line of building materials (contd.)
1821 The truss bridge - Trussed steel members to make
efficient long spans for the rail industry.
1835 Incandescent light bulb - The first electric light
1845 Portland cement
1845 Rubber band and the pneumatic tyre
1852 Passenger elevator - Machinery enters buildings
1855 Bessemer process of steel production - Economic
innovation for the industrial revolution
1860 Linoleum - Nineteenth century materials innovation in
building materials. Result of industrial requirements.
1867 Reinforced concrete - The revolutionary structural
construction material.
 Time line of building materials (contd.)
1874 Automatic fire sprinkler - Services innovation within
buildings.
1880 Ballcock - More services innovations within buildings.
1881 Septic tank - Yet more services innovations within
buildings. The revolving door - Solving an issue of human
logistics and air pressure gradients within the new building
type of the office.
1882 The cantilever bridge - The Forth Bridge
1884 Steel girder skyscraper - The Home Insurance Company
Building was the world's first skyscraper
1885 Electric arc welding
 Time line of building materials (contd.)
1888 AC electricity - Swiftly followed by the electric meter
1891 Carborundum - Hard wearing abrasive material
1891 Escalator
1892 Electric arc furnace
1902 Air conditioning
1913 Stainless steel
1915 Heat proof glass
1926 PVC - Perhaps the most commonly used plastic...
1930 Polystyrene - Or it could be this one.
1930 Neoprene
1936 Epoxy resin
 Time line of building materials (contd.)
1938 Teflon
1938 Fibreglass
1940 Silicone rubber
1942 Super glue
1954 Automatic doors
1959 Pilkington float glass
1963 Computer aided design (CAD)
2001 Self cleaning window
2001 Self healing materials
 Classification of materials
Based on their existence/occurrence
Natural materials: clay, stones, wood, marbles, etc.
Artificial materials: cement, lime, polymers,
plastics, etc.

Based on the purpose to which they use

Structural materials: steel, brick, RCC, etc.
Aesthetic materials: marble, plaster, paints, floor
tiles, etc.
Special materials: pipes, fittings, sanitary fixtures,
wash basins, etc.
 Classification of materials
Based on metallurgy
Metals: Ferrous and non-ferrous metals (aluminum,
copper, gold, silver, etc.)
Non-metals: stones, bricks, wood, ceramics, etc.

Based on composition of the materials

Metals and alloys
Ceramics
Organic polymers
Composites
 Considerations in selection of materials
Physical considerations
Weight, compressive strength, tensile strength, thermal
properties, permeability, durability, fire resistance

Appropriateness
Material compatibility with climatic, cultural and
aesthetic conditions, Suitability of material to occupancy
and size of building, Environmental impact

Architectural considerations
Strength, mass and thickness, physical density, texture,
colour, temperature, fabrication, craftsmanship,
weathering
 Physical properties
Bulk density Porosity
Chemical resistance Refractoriness
Coefficient of softening Spalling resistance
Density Specific heat
Density index Thermal capacity
Durability Thermal conductivity
Fire resistance Water absorption
Frost resistance Water permeability
Hygroscopicity Weathering resistance
 Mechanical properties
Abrasion
Creep
Elasticity
Fatigue
Hardness
Impact strength
Plasticity and brittleness
Strength
Wear
 Rocks
Classification of Rocks
Geological: Based on their origin of formation
Igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks

Physical: Based on the structure

Stratified, unstratified and foliated rocks

Chemical: Based on their chemical composition

Silicious, argillacious and calcarious rocks
Common types of Building Stones

Basalt and trap Limestone

Chalk Marble
Gneiss Murum
Granite Quartzite
Kankar Sandstone
Laterite Slate
 Commonly used building stones
Stone Classificati Qualities Uses Availability
Classification:
on Igneous
Basalt Igneous Hard and Road metal, Maharashtra,
and tough: Difficult foundation Bihar,
trap to work work, rubble Gujarat,
masonry etc. Bengal and
M.P.
Chalk Sedimenta Soft and easy Coloring Maharashtra,
ry to form powder material in Rajasthan,
manufacture of Punjab, M.P.,
P.C. A.P., U.P.
Gneiss Metamorph Splits into thin Street paving, Chennai,
ic slabs, easy to rough stone Mysore,
work masonry Bihar, A.P.
 Commonly used building stones
Stone Classificat Qualities Uses Availability
ion
Granite Igneous Hard, durable Steps, walls, Kashmir,
and available columns, ballast. U.P., Punjab,
in different Unsuitable for M.P.,
colors carving Rajasthan
Kankar Sedimenta Impure lime Road metal, North and
ry stone manufacture of Central India
hydraulic lime
Laterite Metamorp Porous and Building stone, Bihar, Orissa,
hic spongy road metal, rough M.P., A.P.,
structure stone masonry Maharashtra
Lime Sedimenta Carbonate of Floors, steps, Maharashtra,
stone ry lime, easy to walls, road metal Rajasthan,
work Punjab, M.P.,
A.P.
 Commonly used building stones
Stone Classificati Qualities Uses Availability
on
Marble Metamorph Can take good Flooring, facing Rajasthan,
ic polish, work, columns, Maharashtra,
available in steps Gujarat, A.P.,
different colors M.P., U.P.
Murum Metamorph Decomposed Blindage for Same as
ic laterite, deep metal roads, for laterite
brown, red in fancy paths and
color garden walls
Quarzit Metamorph Hard, brittle, Retaining walls, Bengal, A.P.,
e ic crystalline and road metal, Himachal
compact; rubble masonry Pradesh,
difficult to U.P., Mysore,
work Gujarat
 Commonly used building stones

Stone Classificati Qualities Uses Availability

on
Sand sedimentar Consists of Steps, facing A.P., M.P.,
stone y quartz and work, columns, Punjab,
other minerals, flooring, walls Rajasthan,
easy to work Maharashtra,
and dress U.P., Bengal
Slate Metamorph Black color, Roofing work, U.P., M.P.,
ic splits along sills, damp- Bihar,
natural bedding proof courses, Madras,
planes, non- etc. Rajasthan
absorbent and Mysore
 Requirements of good building stone
Strength: It should be able to resist the load coming on it.
Durability: Capable of resisting adverse effects of natural
forces like wind, rain and heat.
Hardness: Should be able to resist abrasive forces caused by
movement of men and materials over them.
Toughness: Should be tough enough to sustain stresses
developed due to vibrations.
Specific Gravity: Heavier variety of stones should be used
for the construction of dams, retaining walls, docks etc.
Porosity and Absorption: Building stone should not be
porous.
 Requirements of good building stone
Dressing: It should be easy to dress so that the cost of
dressing is reduced
Appearance: In case of the stones to be used for face
works, its colour and ability to receive polish is an
important factor.
Seasoning: Good stones should be free from the quarry
sap. Laterite stones should not be used for 6 to 12
months after quarrying..
Cost: Cost is an important consideration in selecting a
building material.
 Tests for stones
Acid test
Water absorption test
Abrasion test
Impact test
Crushing test
Attrition test
Freezing and thawing test
Smiths test
 Acid test
This test is normally carried out on sand stones to check the
presence of calcium carbonate, which weakens the weather
resisting quality.
In this test, a sample of stone weighing about 50 to 100 gm
is taken and kept in a solution of one percent hydrochloric
acid for seven days. The solution is agitated at intervals.
A good building stone maintains its sharp edges and keeps its
surface intact.
If edges are broken and powder is formed on the surface, it
indicates the presence of calcium carbonate. Such stones
will have poor weather resistance.
 Water absorption test (IS 2386 Part 3)
For this test cube specimen weighing about 50 grams
are prepared
% absorption by weight = (W2-W1)/ W1 100
% absorption by volume = (W2-W1) / (W2-W3) 100
% porosity by volume = ( W4-W1 ) / ( W2-W3 ) 100
Density = W1/ (W2-W3)
Specific gravity = W1/ (W2-W3)
Saturation coefficient = Water absorption /Total
porosity = (W2-W1) / (W4-W1)
 Abrasion test (IS 2386 Part 4)
This test is carried out on stones which are used as
aggregates for road construction.
The test result indicate the suitability of stones against
the grinding action under traffic.
Any one of the following test may be conducted to find
out the suitability of aggregates:
Los Angeles abrasion test
Deval abrasion test
Dorrys abrasion test.
Abrasion test
 Attrition test
To find out the rate of wear of stones which are used in
road construction
The results of test indicate the resisting power of
stones against the grinding action under traffic
 Impact test (IS 2386 Part 4)
The resistance of stones to impact is found by
conducting tests in impacting testing machine
It consists of a frame with guides in which a metal
hammer weighing 13.5 to 15 kg can freely fall from a
height of 380 mm.
Aggregates (10 mm to 12.5 mm) are filled in cylinder in
3 equal layers; each layer being tamped 25 times.
The same is then transferred to the cup and again
tamped 25 times. The hammer is then allowed to fall
freely on the specimen 15 times.
The specimen is then sieved through 2.36 mm sieve
Impact test
 Crushing test
Specimen size 40 40 40 mm and cured in water for 3 days
The saturated specimen is provided with a layer of plaster of
paris on its top and bottom surfaces to get even surface so
that load applied is distributed uniformly.
The specimen so placed in the compression testing machine
is loaded at the rate of 14 N/mm2 per minute. The crushing
load is noted.
Then crushing strength is equal to the crushing load divided
by the area over which the load is applied.
At least three specimen should be tested and the average
should be taken as crushing strength.
 Smiths test
Performed to find out the presence of soluble matter
in a sample of stone
 Freezing and thawing test
This test is useful for finding the frost resistance of
material
 Bricks
Brick is most popular and leading construction material
It is cheap, durable, easy to handle and work with.
Used for building up interior and exterior walls,
partitions, piers, footings and other load bearing
structures
Brick may be made of burnt clay, or mixture of sand
and lime or of P.C.C.
 Size and weight of bricks
For India
Standard size of bricks is 19 cm 9 cm 9 cm
Normal size (with mortar) is 20 cm 10 cm 10 cm.
The commonly adopted nominal size of traditional
bricks is 23 cm 11.4 cm 7.6 cm.
It is found that the weight of 1 m3 of brick earth is
about 1800 kg. Hence the average weight of a brick
will be about 3 to 3.50 kg.
 Constituents of brick earth
Good quality brick earth is composed of a mixture of
pure clay and sand after removing pebbles of every
kind.

The main constituents are

Aluminum 20 to 30 %
Silica 50 to 65 %
Lime 2 to 5 %
Iron oxide - 5 to 7 %
Magnesia < 1 %
 Constituents of brick earth (contd.)
Alumina
It is the chief constituent of every kind of clay. A good
brick earth should contain about 20 to 30 percent of
alumina. This constituent imparts plasticity to earth so
that it can be moulded.
Silica
A good brick earth should contain about 50 to 60 per cent
of silica. Presence of this constituent prevents cracking,
shrinking and warping of raw bricks. It thus imparts
uniform shape to the bricks.
Excess of silica destroys the cohesion between particles
and bricks become brittle.
 Constituents of brick earth (contd.)
Lime
It should be present in a finely powdered state and not in
lump.
Lime prevents shrinkage of raw bricks.
Sand alone is infusible. But it slightly fuses at kiln
temperature in presence of lime.
Excess of lime causes the brick to melt and hence, its
shape is lost.
Lumps of lime are converted into quick lime after
burning and this quicklime slakes and expands in
presence of moisture.
 Constituents of brick earth (contd.)
Oxide of Iron
About 5 to 7 per cent is desirable in good brick earth.
It helps lime to fuse sand. It also imparts red colour
to bricks.
Excess of oxide of iron makes the bricks dark blue or
blackish

Magnesia
A small quantity of magnesia in brick earth imparts
yellow tint colour to bricks and decreases shrinkage.
But excess of magnesia leads to the decay of bricks.
 Harmful ingredients of brick
Lime
Causes unsoundness in brick if present in excess amounts.
Iron pyrites
Bricks are crystallized and disintegrated during burning.
Alkalies
These are mainly in the form of soda and potash
Pebbles
Pebbles will not allow the clay to be mixed uniformly and
thoroughly which will result in weak and porous bricks.
Organic Matter
Presence in brick earth assists in burning. But if such
matter is not completely burnt, bricks become porous.
 Characteristics of Good Brick
Size and shape
Colour
Texture and compactness
Hardness and soundness
Water absorption
Crushing strength
Brick earth
Efflorescence
Thermal conductivity and fire resistance
 Tests for Bricks
Absorption
Crushing strength
Hardness
Presence of soluble salts
Shape and size
Soundness
Structure
 Tests for bricks (contd.)

Absorption
A brick is taken and it is weighted dry. It is then
immersed in water for a period of 16 hours.
Then weight again and the difference in weight
should not, in any case, exceed
20 per cent of weight of dry brick for first class bricks.
22.5 per cent for second class bricks.
25 per cent for third class bricks.
 Tests for bricks (contd.)
Crushing strength
Minimum crushing strength for first class bricks should
not be less than 10 N/mm2 and for second class
bricks should not be less than 7.5 N/mm2

Hardness
In this test, a scratch is made on brick surface with the
help of a finger nail. If no impression is left on the
surface, brick is treated to be sufficiently hard.
 Tests for bricks (contd.)
Presence of soluble salts
Salts will cause efflorescence on the surface of bricks.
It is immersed in water for 24 hours. It is then taken out
and allowed to dry in shade. Absence of grey or white
deposits on its surface indicates absence of soluble salts.
If the white deposits cover about 10% surface, the
efflorescence is said to be slight.
When white deposits cover about 50% of surface thin it is
said to be moderate.
If grey or white deposits are found on more than 50% of
surface, the efflorescence becomes heavy and it is
treated as serious.
 Tests for bricks (contd.)
Shape and Size
Its shape should be truly rectangular with sharp edges.
20 bricks are randomly selected of standard (19 9 9
cm) for good quality bricks, the results should be within
the following permissible limits: Length 368 cm to 392
cm; Width 174 cm to 186 cm; Height 174 to 186 cm

Soundness
In this test, two bricks are taken and they are struck with
each other.
Bricks should not break and a clear ringing sound should
be produced.
 Tests for bricks (contd.)

Structure
It should be homogenous compact and free from any
defects such as holes, lumps, etc.
High duty fire-clays can resist temperature range of
1482C to 1648C;
medium duty fire-clays can resist temperature range
of 1315C to 1482C and
low duty fire-clays can resist temperature up to
870C only.
 Manufacture of bricks

Selection of earth for good bricks

Preparation of brick clay

Moulding of bricks

Air drying of bricks

Burning of bricks
Manufacture of bricks
 Preparation of brick clay
Removal of loose soil
The top layer of the loose soil about 30 cm depth contains a
lot of impurities like organic matter and hence it should be
taken out and thrown away
Digging, spreading and cleaning
The earth is then dug out from the ground. This earth is
spread into heaps about 50 to 150 cm height
Weathering
The earth is then exposed to atmosphere for softening. The
period may be of few weeks to a season.
Blending and tempering
The clay is then mixed with suitable ingredients. It is
carried out by taking a small portion of clay every time and
by turning it up and down in vertical direction
Preparation of brick clay
Pug mill
 Moulding of bricks
Hand moulding
When moulding is done with hand it is called hand
moulding. (it can be ground moulded or table moulded)
A wooden rectangular mould made in the shape of a
brick is normally used for this purpose.

Machine moulding
The clay is placed in the machine, it comes out through
the opening under pressure.
It is cut to bricks by steel wires fixed into frames.
These bricks are also called wire cut bricks
 Drying of bricks
Wet brick from moulding or cutting machines contain 7
to 30 percent moisture, depending upon the forming
method.
Before the firing process begins, most of this water is
evaporated in dryer chambers at temperatures ranging
from about 100 F to 400 F (38 C to 204 C).
The extent of drying time, which varies with different
clays, usually is between 24 to 48 hours.
Heat and humidity must be carefully regulated to avoid
cracking in the brick
 Burning of bricks
Burning of bricks imparts hardness and strength to the
bricks
It makes the bricks dense and durable
Over-burnt bricks are brittle and may break easily,
whereas under burnt bricks are soft and cannot carry load
The chemical changes take place during the burning
process are: Dehydration, oxidation and vitrification
Bricks may be burnt by two distinct methods. Clamp burning
and Kiln burning
 Burning of bricks
Kilns are permanent structures used for burning bricks in
large scale whereas clamps are temporary arrangements for
manufacturing bricks in small scale
Procedure
Moulded clay is stacked in the chambers.
They are then slowly dried and burned to high
temperature and cooled.
One cycle of loading, drying, burning, cooling and
emptying may take as much as two weeks.
These processes are carried out intermittently in
intermittent kilns and in cyclic order in continuous kilns.
 Burning of bricks
Clamp burning
Its shape in plan is generally trapezoidal. Floor of clamp
is prepared in such a way that short end is slightly in the
excavation and wider end is raised at an angle of about
15 from ground level.
In clamps, one batch of green bricks is heaped along with
firewood, coal etc. and sealed with clay. It is then fired
slowly to intense heat which may take many days.

Kiln burning
A kiln is a large over which is used to burn bricks.
Modern kilns, however, permanent structures consisting
of many chambers
Clamp burning vs Kiln burning
 Intermittent kilns
Examples: clamp, scove and scotch kilns
Highly inefficient and labor-intensive.
Use of coal and scavenged fuels - most common,
most primitive, most polluting
Temporary Structures
 Intermittent Kilns
These kilns are two types: Up-draught and down-draught
Up-draught type kiln
Better than clamp burnt bricks but their quality is not
uniform. Bottom bricks are over burnt and top bricks are
under burnt
Down draught type
These are rectangular or circular in shape
The floor of the kiln has an opening connected to a
common chimney stack through flues
In this arrangement, the hot gases are carried through
vertical flues up to the roof level, then hot gases move
downwards by a chimney draught
Performance of this kiln is better than the up-draught one
 Continuous kilns
Examples: Hoffman, bulls trench, vertical shaft, Habla
These are permanent structures.
Burning is done continuously in kilns.
Loading, firing, cooling and unloading operations are
carried out simultaneously due to more number of
chambers
Bricks from kilns are of correct size, perfect shape and
good quality.
Rate of burning is also high in kilns. But initial
investment for kiln is very high.
Efficient and potentially clean
Continuous kilns
 Bulls trench kiln
The kiln is constructed in a trench excavated fully
underground or partially above the ground
Circular or oval (dimension lies between 100 to 150 m in
length, 6-9 m in width and 2 to 2.5 m depth
Divided into number of interconnected chambers and
each chamber has to pass through the stages like
loading, preheating, burning, cooling, unloading and
cleaning
The exhaust gases are let out through high movable
metal chimneys
Two iron chimneys are employed to form draught
Bulls trench kiln
 Hoffmans kiln
It is an oval-shaped multi chambered kiln in which the
combustion air is preheated by cooling in some
chambers and then passes through the firing zone which
the exhaust gases preheat the green bricks
Like bullstrench kiln, the hoffmans kiln is operated to
give a continuous supply of bricks
Differences: central chimney, permanent roof and over
ground construction
Principle: Development of upward draught air within
the kiln. Natural air gets access to kiln through this
gate, which passes to the other cambers. Thus, the air
helps in preheating, burning and cooling
Hoffmans Kiln
Bulls trench vs Hoffmans kiln
Energy consumption: A comparison
between Kilns
 Vertical Shaft Brick Kiln (VSBK)
This is a continuous updraft kiln with impressive
fuel economy
Internal fuel in the form of coal, biomass, sawdust
is added during moulding of green bricks which
creates favourable condition for short cycle firing
The time interval between loading of raw bricks and
unloading of fired bricks is one day
This type is energy efficient and environment
friendly
 Classification of bricks
Unburnt or sun dried bricks
These are used for temporary and cheap construction.
These are also used for filling works
These bricks are dried under sun light after the process of
moulding. These bricks should not be used at places
exposed to heavy rains.

Burnt bricks
First class bricks
Second class bricks
Third class bricks
Fourth class bricks
 Burnt bricks
First class bricks
Made of good earth which is free from saline deposits
and are sand moulded.
Burnt thoroughly without being vitrified and have
deep red, cherry and copper colour.
Regular and uniform in shape and size with sharp and
square edges and parallel faces.
Must be homogeneous in texture and emit a clear
ringing sound on being struck together.
Free from flaws, cracks, chops, stones and lime.
Have a minimum crushing strength of 105 kg per sq.
cm when tested according to the test
 Burnt bricks (contd.)
Second class bricks
They shall be well burnt or slightly over burnt.
They must give clear ringing sound when struck.
They may have slight irregularities in size, shape
and colour.
They may have slight chips, flaws or surface crack
but must be free from lime or kankar.
The minimum crushing strength of second class
brick should be 70 kg per sq. cm.
 Burnt bricks (contd.)
Third class bricks
These bricks are slightly under burnt or over burnt.
They are not uniform in shape, size and edges.
They shall not observe water more than 25% of their own
dry weight after 24 hours, immersion in cold water.
They have some signs of efflorescence

Fourth class bricks

These are over burnt bricks which are dark in colour and
are irregular in size and shape.
These are used as aggregate in concrete and for flooring.
Over burnt bricks are not used for building construction.
 Special types of bricks
Squint bricks
These bricks are made in a variety of shapes and are
used to the construction of a cute and obtuse squint
quoins.

Bull Nosed Bricks

These bricks are used to form rounded quoins.

Perforated Bricks
These brick are used for constructing load bearing
wall of low building and give maximum amount of
ventilation.
 Special types of bricks (contd.)
Hallow Bricks
These bricks are light in weight and are used to
increase insulation against heat and dampness.

Circular Bricks
These brick are used for well , towers, etc to
provide a particular curve or radius to wall

Plinth cornice and String Course Brick

These bricks are moulded in several patterns with
the object of adding architectural beauty to the
structure
 Shape of bricks
Bullnose Brick
A brick moulded with a rounded angle is termed as a
bullnose. It is used for a rounded quoin.
A connection which is formed when a wall takes a turn is
known as quoin.

Channel Bricks
These bricks are moulded to the shape of a gutter or a
channel and they are very often glazed.
These bricks are used to function as drain.
Shape of bricks (contd.)
 Shape of bricks (contd.)
Coping bricks
These bricks are made to suit the thickness of walls
on which coping is to be provided.
Such bricks take various forms such as chamfered
half-round or saddle-back

Cownose Bricks
A brick moulded with a double bullnose on end is
known as cownose.
 Shape of bricks (contd.)
Curved Sector Bricks
These bricks are in the form of curved sector and
they are used in the construction of circular brick
masonry pillars, brick chimneys.
The perforation may be circular, square, rectangular
or any other regular shape in cross-section.
The water absorption after immersion for 24 hour in
water should not exceed 15% by water.
Compressive strength of perforated bricks should not
be less than 7 N/mm2 on gross area.
 Shape of bricks (contd.)
Hollow Bricks
Also known as cellular or cavity bricks. Such bricks
have wall thickness of about 20 mm to 25 mm.
They are prepared from special homogeneous clay.
They are light in weight about one third the weight
of the ordinary bricks of the same size.
The use of such bricks leads to speedy construction.
They also reduce the transmission of heat, sound and
damp.
Used in the construction of brick partitioning.
 Shape of bricks (contd.)
Paving bricks
These bricks are prepared from clay containing a
higher percentage of iron. Excess iron vitrifies the
bricks at a low temperature. Such bricks resist better
the abrasive action of traffic. Paving bricks may be
plain or checkered.

Perforated Bricks
Perforated bricks are used in the construction of
brick panels for lightweight structures and multi-
storeyed framed structures.