CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO BUILDING STRUCTURES

Learning Outcomes :

Upon completion of this chapter students

should be able to :
Elaborate on the concept of structural
design.
Define live load, dead load and wind
load.
Illustrate the three and two dimension
concept of design.
1.1 Engineering Structures

Are systems built for different purposes

such as buildings, bridges, dams, offshore
oil platforms, water and gas tanks, piping
systems, airplanes, ships etc.


1.2 Structural Engineering

Is a process of applying the laws and

principles of science to the design and
construction of structures.
This involves several stages:
-Planning and conceptualisation,
compliance of concept
types of structures and materials
-Tentative Design,
analysing forces and displacement

-Modification
repeat the analysis and size-calculation
cycle.
-Developing the final drawings,
finalise the dimensions to be used in
the construction.
1.3 Types of Structures

Structures may composed of a variety of types

and shapes.
Some common types are :
- beam - slabs
- trusses - shells
- arches
- cables

1.4 Modelling and
Idealisation
For design and construction purposes, a
structure may be divided into a no. of
components.
These components may be of different
types, for example, frames and slabs, or
of a no. of similar components such as
beams.
 Example 1:
The roof of a building is composed of a
no. of trusses. These trusses are
connected together by purlins. However,
since the displacement of each truss
occurs mainly in its own plane, each
truss can be design as a two-dimensional
structures.
 Example 2:
The structure is in fig 1.4(a) is a 3-
dimensional frame. For design purposes it
can be divided into a no. of 2-
dimensional frames.
1.5 Structural Behaviour

Structural behaviour is the manner in

which structures act to carry and transfer
their loads and the deformation modes
they assume.
Thus, study of structural behaviour consists
of establishing the primary modes of
deformation and identifying the manner
in which they carry their loads.
1.6 Materials

The common materials used in structures

are steel, concrete (reinforced and
prestressed), masonry, timber, aluminium
and plastics.

The typical stress-strain curves for steel,

concrete and wood are shown in Figure
1.6.
Stress-Strain Curves

In a testing machine, incremental force is

applied to the specimen.

Stress and strain are calculated from:

=P/ A and = l / l
P = applied load

A = area of cross-section of the

specimen

l = original length o specimen.

l = change of length of specimen.

 For an elastic analysis only the linear
portion of the stress-strain curve is
considered, or it is assumed that the
curve is linear in the range of loading.

The slope E of the stress-strain curve is

called Youngs Modulus or the modulus of
elasticity.
 Since E = / ,

then = E

- Stress is measured in pounds per square

inch (psi) or Pascals (1 Pa = 1 newton / m2
)

- Strain is dimensionless.
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1.7 Analysis and Design

Structural analysis consist determining the

stresses and deflections of a structural
configuration with given dimensions and
specified loads.

Design, on the other hand, consists of the

complete process from
conceptualisation to sizing of the
members, such that the safety, stability
and functionality of the structure is
achieved without excessive cost.
 For simple structure, the sizing of the
members may be done directly.

For more cpmplex structures,

determination of member sizes may
involve repeated analyses.

Codes and specifications used :

BS 8110 BS 5950
1.8 Loads

The loads applied to structures are the

main causes of stress and deformation.
In general, these are classified into 3
groups: dead loads, imposed (live) loads
and wind loads.
(1) Dead Loads

Comprises the permanent loads due to

the static weight of the structure itself, the
cladding, floor finishes and any other
fixtures which form the fabric of the
building or consists of the weight of the
basic frame, walls and other structural
components and the machinery that is
permanently installed.
(2) Imposed (Live) Loads

Are those produced by the intended

occupancy of the building, i.e. loads due
to the weight of plant a nd equipment,
furniture, the people who use the
building,etc.
Live loads are movable or moving,
therefore, their magnitude and location
may be variable.
They also include snow loads, impact and
dynamic loads arising from machinery,
cranes.
 ..and other plant and such irregular loads
as those caused by earthquakes,
explosions and changes in temperature.
(a) occupancy loads may be due to
people,
furniture, etc. For design purposes,
their
magnitudes are specified by the
Uniform
Building Code (Table 1.3)
(b)Snow Loads Roof snow loads depend
on the geographic location and
conditions of the building.
(c) Wind Loads are particularly significant
on tall buildings. On small buildings the
uplift caused by the wind may be
severe enough to cause damage.
1.9 Load Combinations

Various combinations of the

characteristics values of dead load Gk,
imposed load Qk, wind load Wk, and their
partial factors of safety must be
considered for the loading of the
structure.
 The ultimate limit state the loading
combination to be considered are as
follows:
1. Dead and imposed load, 1.4 Gk + 1.6
Qk
2. Dead and wind load, 1.0 Gk + 1.4 Wk
3. Dead, imposed and wind loads,
1.2 Gk + 1.2 Qk + 1.2 Wk
 For load and resistance factor design
(LRFD), the loads are multiplied by load
factors and then combined.
Loads factors vary for the different load
combinations and may be slightly
different for concrete and steel structures.
Case Project

Three Gorge Dam