CARBOHYDRATES

Agung Nugroho Puspito, Ph.D

anpuspito@unej.ac.id
08122-5550555

UNIVERSITAS JEMBER
2017
Life is understandable at the chemical level. We
can explain by understanding the structure of
molecules. At this level, biochemistry helps us
to understand one seen magic about life
(Eric Lander, Professor of Genetics)

Hidup dapat di pahami pada tingkat

kimia. Kita bisa menjelaskan dengan
memahami struktur molekul. Pada
tingkat ini, biokimia membantu kita
untuk memahami satu keajaiban yang
terlihat tentang kehidupan
 DEFINITION
Carbohydrates or Saccharides are polyhydric or polyhydroxy alcohols
(OH) with potentially active carbonyl groups, which may either be
aldehyde (H-C=O) or keto (C=O) groups.
They are made up of not less than 3 carbon atoms
Free aldehyde or keto groups have reducing properties i.e. They
either take away O2 or donate H2 to the coumpounds they react
with, observed by color changes during the reaction.
Those sugars which have at least one free aldehyde or keto group in
their structure are knows as reducing sugar and those sugar
which do not have any free active groups are know as non
reducing sugars
Aldehyde group is always present at carbon no. 1 and keto group at
carbon no. 2
CLASSIFICATION

Classified according to
the number of sugar
residues
 1. MONOSACCHARIDES
They are classified according to the number of
carbon atoms
No. Of C Generic Name Aldose Ketose
atoms
3 Triose Glycerose or Dihydroxy Acetone
Glyceraldehyde
4 Tetrose Erythrose Erythrolose
5 Pentose Ribose, xylose Ribulose, Xylulose
6 Hexose Glucose, fructose
Galactose,
mannose
 They are simplest sugars
They can not be hydrolyzed further
They may be Aldose (Aldo-sugar)
They may be Ketose (Keto-sugar)
All of the monosaccharides are reducing
sugars
 Functions and Significance of Important
Monosaccharides
A. Glyceraldehyde
It is used a reference sugar
It is called a reference sugar because of two
reasons i.e. All the sugar are derived form it and
all the D and L forms of sugars are referred to it.
B. Dihydroxy Acetone
It is produced and utilized in the breakdown of
glucose through glycolysis to produce energy
It is also produced from glycerol during
triglyceride degradation
C. Erythrose, Erythrulose
They are produced during glucose breakdown
through hexose Monophosphate Pathway and
can be converted to glucose in vivo
D. Ribose
Distributed widely in nature
In the body it is produced through H.M.P
shunt
Ribose is the component of nucleic acid, RNA
Deoxyribose is a component of nucleic acid,
DNA
E. Ribulose, Xylose and Xylulose
They are produced through H.M.P. Shunt and can be
converted to glucose in vivo

F. Glucose (grape sugar)

Also called dextrose due to dextrorotation
The main sugar of the human body
The most common source of glucose is sucrose
The first line of nutrition for the production of energy
through Glycolysis and Citric Acid Cycle
Need insulin for entry into cell
Upon reduction glucose form alcohol e.g. Sorbitol
Upon oxidation glucose forms sugar acid e.g. Gluconic
acid, glucuronic acid and glucaric acid
G. Galactose
Present in milk sugar i.e. Lactose
Utilized in the development of brain tissues e.g.
Cerebrosides and gangliosides
It is an epimer of glucose
H. Mannose
It is converted to glucose in vivo
Reduction of mannose produces an alcohol i.e. Mannitol,
which is used as an osmotic diuretic, in cases of cerebral
edema
I. Fructose
The sweetest of all the sugar
Called levulose due to levorotation
Fructose is converted to glucose in the liver
Energy for spermatozoa
 2. DISACCHARIDES
On hydrolysis two monosaccharide residues
Sucrose is non-reducing disaccharide, and the
remaining two disaccharides are reducing
Maltose (Fruit sugar): Glucose+Glucose
Lactose (Milk sugar): Glucose+Galactose
Sucrose (Cane sugar): Glucose+Fructose
 Significance of Disaccharides
A. Maltose
o on hydrolysis it yield two
molecules of glucose
o The two molecules of
glucose are attached with
one another through a
glycosidic linkage between
C no. 1 of one glucose
molecule and C no. 4 of
the other, termed as -1-4
linkage
B. Lactose
o On hydrolysis it yield one
molecule of glucose and one
molecule of galactose, which
are linked together through
-1-4 glycosidic linkage that
way it is also a reducing
sugar
o Enzyme lactase, which is
present in the intestinal
lumen, hydrolyzes lactose
into its constituent
monosaccharides
o Lactose can be ferment by
bacteria to lactic acid
C. Sucrose
o Commonly known as table sugar
o On hydrolysis it yields one molecule
of glucose and one molecule of
fructose
o The two monosaccharides are linked
together trough -1-2 glycosidic
linkage
o The potentially active groups i.e.
Aldehyde group of glucose at C no. 1
and Keto group of fructose at no. 2
are engaged in making glycosidic
bond. Therefore there is no active
group left free resulting in loss of
reducing property. Thats way
sucrose is a non-reducing
disaccharide.
o Sucrose exhibits the phenomenon of
inversion hence also called Invert
Sugar
o When sucrase is added to the sucrose
solution, the sucrose gets hydrolyzed into
glucose and fructose. But the fructose
changes its form from furanose to pyranose
o Sucrose as a disaccharide is dextrorotatory but
after hydrolysis it become levorotatory. This
change in the rotation of plane polarized light
from right to left is known as the
Phenomenon of Inversion
 3. OLIGOSACCHARIDES
On hydrolysis these sugars yield from 3 to 10
monosaccharide units.
Not important physiologically
 4. POLYSACCHARIDES
On hydrolysis yield more than 10
monosaccharide units.
From structural element of cells
All of the polysaccharides are non-
reducing carbonydrates
polysaccharides are of two main
types i.e. Homopolysaccharides and
heteropolysaccharides
 4.1. HOMOPOLYSACCHARIDES
On hydrolysis yield only one type of
monosaccharide units
Animal source: glycogen
Plant source: starch, dextrins, dextrans and
cellulose
All of these contain glucose
 Significance
4.1.1 Glycogen
It is present mainly in liver and
muscles, where it acts as a storage
polysaccharide for glucose
It is also knows as animal starch
Glycogen has both -1-4 and -1-6
glycosidic linkages therefore it
needs two enzymes e.g.
Phosphorylase which breaks -1-4
glycosidic bond and debrancing
enzyme which breaks -1-6 bonds,
to release glucose from glycogen
4.1.2 Starch
It is the main form of ingested carbohydrates
Two types i.e. Amylose (straight chain) and
amylopectin (tree like, branched structure. Each
branch having more than 12 glucose residues)
Starch is hydrolyzed by amylases (salivary and
pancreatic)
Both of these amylases hydrolyze strach into
maltose, maltotriose and dextrins
4.1.3 Dextrins
They are the intermediate products of the hydrolysis of starch
They have sweet taste
Examples are amylodextrins, erythrodextrins and achrodextrins

4.1.4 Dextrans
They are highly viscous polysaccharide
They are used as plasma expanders in the treatment of shock.

4.1.5 Cellulose
Human can not digest cellulose because they lack the enzyme
cellulase
It is the main fibrous organic matter and present mainly in plant
kingdom
It provides bulk to the food and stimulates the intestinal peristalsis
thus prevents constipation
 4.2. HETEROPOLYSACCHARIDES
o Include : mucopolysaccharised, mucilages and
hemicullulose
4.2.1 Mucopolysaccharised
These are heteropolysaccharides of animal
origin
They combine with proteins to form
mucoprotein and mucins
They are acid containing carbohydrates e.g.
Hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfates, heparin,
blood group polysaccharides and serum
mucoids
4.2.2 Mucilages
Heteropolysaccharides of plant origin,
examples are agar, vegetable gums and
pectins

4.2.3 Hemicullulose
They are of plant origin (not important)
 5. Derived Carbohydrates
They are derived chemically from carbohydrate
 5.1. Sugar Acids
These are the oxidation products of glucose
If glucose is oxidized at C no. 1 it will form
gluconic acid (aldonic acid)
If it is oxidized at C no. 6 it will form glucuronic
acid (uronic acid)
If oxidized both at C no. 1 and C no. 6 then it
will form glucaric acid (saccharic acid)
 5.2 Alcohols
The reduction products of monosaccharides
produce alcohols e.g. Glyceraldehyde and
Dihydroxy acetone forms glycerol, Glucose
forms sorbitol, mannose forms mannitol,
fructose form both sorbitol and mannitol.
 5.3 Amino Sugars
The amino group (-NH2) is attached to these
sugars at carbon no. 2
e.g. Glucose and galactose form glucosamine
and galactoseamine respectivelly
As they have been derived from hexoses
hence called hexosamine
 5.4 Deoxy Sugars
They are formed by the removal of O2 from C
no. 2 of ribose e.g. Deoxyribose present in
DNA
 5.5 Conjugated Sugars
These are the carbohydrates found in
combination with protein e.g.
Glycoproteins
With lipids e.g. Glycolipids and
lipopolysaccharides
OVERVIEW
Basic of Metabolism
 Basic of Metabolism Fats
Glycogen Carbohydrate Glycerol Adipose
Protein Muscle + fatty acids
Glucose tissue

Amino acid Pyruvate O2 Respiration

CO2
Urine Amine Acetyl CoA
O2
High Energy
carriers CO2 + H2O
H2O
TCA cycle/
Electron
Kreb cycle
Transport
Chain
ATP

= Energy

The balance is controlled by

Building up HORMONS Breaking down Glucagon
Epinephrine
Insulin
Glucocortocoids
Sex steroids ANABOLISM CATABOLISM Thyroxine & Growth
Thyroxine & Growth Hormon
Hormon
(Protein synthesis)
(Fat/Carbohydrate)