Constructions and Material For Fire Safety Design: An Exergy Analysis of A Concrete Core Conditioning System Coupled With

KTH Stockholm Akustik och brand
Royal Institute of Technology Constructions and material for fire safety

Div. of Building Technology Dr. Tim Weber
An Exergy Analysis of A Concrete Core

Conditioning System Coupled with
aConstructions and material for
fire safety design
Tim Weber
Tim Weber
Division of Building Technology, Department of Civil
and Architectural Engineering,
KTH The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm,
S 100 44, Sweden

Conditioning System Coupled with a
Fire
Tim Weber
S 100 44, Sweden
Fire needs
a fuel
an ignition source
oxygen
to START
Fire needs
enough fuel
enough heat release
from the fuel
enough oxygen
to GROW
Oxygen
For a fully developped fire

including flash-over it needs
unburnt flammable gases
radiant heat from the
ceiling or walls that
serves as ignition
source
available oxygen
Oxygen

radiant heat from the
ceiling or walls that
serves as ignition
source
available oxygen
Oxygen

radiant heat from the ceiling or walls that
serves as ignition source
available oxygen
Role of building construction

for fire development
Stores heat
Transmit heats
Prevents the transmissions of smoke
Prevents or allows the inflow of oxygen
May be a burnable fuel
Role of building construction

for fire development

Fire safety design
Tim Weber
S 100 44, Sweden
General Principles
To ensure the safe self-evacuation of the
occupants
To ensure the safe evacuation of the
occupants by the fire brigades
To enable an effective fire fighting
To prevent the fire spread to adjacent
buildings and or between different fire
compartments
Means
Active measures as fire alarm, sprinklers
etc.
Passive measures as fire resistance of
separating building elements.
Both active and passive measures will
interact.
Both active and passive measures will never
be able to ensure a complete fire safety
Fire safety engineering
Design of Natural Calculation

active measures fire of fire resistance
Fire Safety Engineering

Designing the necessary active and passive
measures to ensure an adequate fire safety
Calculating the interaction of active and
passive measures
Giving the resulting fire safety of active and
passive measures
Ensuring that the final building will comply
with the design

Building materials fire
behaviour
Tim, Department of Civil and Architectural

Engineering,
S 100 44, Sweden
Classification of building material

Building material will be classified
according to european standard
classification gives information about:
combustability
ignitability
smoke production
risk of formation of burning droplets
Non-Combustible material
A1 material
will not contribute to fire growth
will not contribute to fire propagation
but may deteriorate during a fire

Non-Combustible material
A2 material
will contribute in very little extent to fire
growth
will not burn by itself and therefor do not
contribute to fire propagation

but may deteriorate during a fire
may produce a certain amount of smoke
may form burning droplets

Combustible material
B material
will contribute to a little extent to fire
growth
will burn by itself and therefor contribute to
fire propagation

C material
will contribute in a substantial extent to fire
growth
will burn by itself and therefor contribute to
fire propagation

D,E,F material
will contribute to a very substantial extent
to fire growth
will burn fast by itself and therefor
contribute to fire propagation


Test to determine combustability

No general test to test combustability or
ignitability
Most test will not be performed in realistic
situations
Test methods will not determine all
important parameters of building material in
fire
Single burning item test
exhaust gas
ventilation hood
Tested material mounted

in the corner
2,4 m
sandbed gas burner

3m
3m
Combustability test
Small piece of material
used
Temperature rise in the
furnace measured
Sustained flaming time
measured
Oxygen bomb calorimeter

Used to measure the potential maximum
total heat release rate of building products
that will be completely burned.
Does not measure the rate of heat release
(HRR)
Is performed in an atmosphere of pure
oxygen and high pressure which is
unrealistic
Ignitabitability test
and radiant heating panel
Ignitability test is performed with a little
flame.
Radiant heating panel is used to measure

ignitability of flooring material. The critical
heat flux is measured to allow for sustained
burning.
Deficiency of classification method

classification cannot be used to perform
natural fire safety calculation since the heat
release rate (HRR) is not given as actual
values
classification does not describe the
deterioration behaviour of building material
necessary for a correct description of the
insulating capacity of building material used
as fire protection
Engineering approach
to describe combustability
Ignitabiliy, combustability, fire growth and
fire propagation can all be described using
fire dynamics
their exists theoretical description of all the
above mentioned phenomenas
needed material data are the Heat Release
Parameter, Critical Heat Flux for piloted
ignition and Thermal Response Parameter

Fire safety of building
constructions as main passive
measure

Engineering,
S 100 44, Sweden
Role of building constructions

Prevent the spread of fire
(Criteria Integrity E )
Prevent the collapse of the building
(Criteria Resistance R)
Ensure safe escape routes
(Criteria Insulation I)
Prevent the spread of fire to adjacent
buildings even if the building collapses
( Criteria Mechanical Impact M)
Building regulations
Can either be:
Prescriptive e.g. a separating wall shall be
EI30
Performance-based e.g. a separating wall
shall prevent the fire spread during 30
minutes
Target-based e.g. a wall shall prevent the
fire spread as long as necessary to ensure a
fire safe building
Swedish Building regulations

Are a mixture between prescriptive,
performance-based and target based
Generally more prescriptive for
constructions
More target-based for escape routes
Performance-based for e.g. stairways
Swedish Building regulations

concerning constructions
Prescribing the required resistance class e.g.
separating constructions in building class
Br2 shall be EI30. For the design fire used
to prove that a construction is able to reach
EI 30 it prescribes the ISO curve. But it
opens the possibility to use a natural design
fire curve instead which describes the actual
fire load of the intended use.
Role of the designer

Ensure that the chosen construction meets
the requirements
Ensure that the chosen design those not
endanger the constructions ability to meet
the requirements
Detect defaults in the design on the
workmanship that will lead to a lower fire
resistance than expectable
Calculating the Fire Safety

of building constructions
It is possible to use tabulated values
resulting from fire tests in an oven
It is possible to calculate the fire resistance
under a fire representing the same
circumstances as in the oven (ISO-Fire)
It is possible to calculate the fire resistance
under a fire representing the circumstances
in the building (Natural Fire)
Design fires
FIG. 1 ISO-curve and two examples of an possible natural office fire. The curves for the office fire has been
worked out with the One-zone model Ozone v 2.2 (Cadorin).
ISO-Curve vs. Natural fire in

technical appliances
T Raum [C]
1200
Technikraum mit sehr hoher
Kabellast unterhalb der Decke
und einseitiger Ventilation [C]
1000
Technikraum mit guter
Ventilation und mittlerer
800 Kabellast unterhalb der Decke
[C]
Technikraum mit schlechter
600 Ventilation und mittlerer
[C]
400 Technikraum mit schlechter
Ventilation und hoher
200 [C]
ETK [C]
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
Zeit [sec]
Thermal processes
Heat transfer
Heat storage
Phase change
Only thermal resistance

Thermal resistance+thermal storage

Thermal resistance+phase change

Dynamic temperature calculations

Graphs for time-temperature field values can
be found basically in ENV 1992 1:2
Simple calculation methods can be found in
ENV 1993 1-2:1995 and in ENV 1994-1-
2:1994
A simple calculation for the temperature field
in wood will mainly regard only the charring
rate assuming that after a certain distance to
the charred layer the wood is not affected by
the fire
Temperature field calculation for steel

Unprotected members:
a,t= (Am/V)/(ca*a)*hnet,d*t
Protected members:
a,t= (p*Ap/V)/(dp*ca*a)*( g,t- a,t )
/(1+/3)*t - (e/10-1) *g,t
Dynamic temperature calculations
Can be performed using FEM-calculations

Needed indata are heat of radiation, gas
temperature, heat conductivity, heat capacity,
density, deterioration behaviour of the material
during fire
Structural calculations
Fire safety of structures can be designed with:
Tabulated values
Simplified calculation methods
Advanced calculation methods using FEM-
programms
Tabulated values
Tabulated values can be found in a variety
of codes as ENV 1992 1:2 to 1999 1:2
For especially light-weight constructions
tabulated values are given by the company
according to tests
Tabulated does not take into accounts
restraints nor adjacent building
constructions
Calculation according
to ENV 1991 1:2 to 1999 1:2
Bases on physical laws of heat conduction
storage and material behaviour at elevated
temperatures.
The resulting algorithms has been validated
against results of tests on building
construction performed in an oven
Calculation according
to the Eurocodes
Combination of thermal and structural
analysis:
Higher temperature = lower stiffness
lower failure load

Example: Temperature deve-

lopment and stiffness reduction
of a I300 steel beam
Stahltemperaturen nach Gl. 4.21 des EC 3 1-2 Abminderungsfaktor der Festigkeit nach Gl. 4.21 des
EC 3 1-2
900 1.2
800
1
Temperatur [C]
700
k,y,theta,max [-]
600 0.8
500
400 0.6
300
0.4
200
100 0.2
0
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
0 20 40 60 80 100
Zeit [min] Zeit [min]
Steeltemperature Stiffness reduction

Interaction between fire load

and static load
Equal fire resistance

Structural calculation
Safety factors will be reduced to:
permanent loads = 1
life loads <1
e.g. snow = 0,2-0,0
e.g. office use = 0,7-0,3
Strains in structural member

i (, T) th (T) cr (, T, t ) tr (, T)
Apart from the mechanical strain in fire:
Thermal strain
Creep strain
And in case of concrete transient strain is present
Effect of thermal strain

in structural member
If the total strain is restrained the thermal
strain has to be balanced by an opposite
mechanical strain
Action Reaction
Uniformly heated Thermal elongation of

unrestrained beam unrestrained beam
Uniformly heated Internal normal compression N-

restrained beam force
Modes of failure for members

without restraint
Modes of failure for members

with restraint
Axial thrust for members

with restraint
a) b)
Position of axial
Position of axial thrust
thrust
Centroidal axis
Centroidal axis
Sliding bearing
c) d)
Position of axial
thrust
Position of axial
thrust
Centroidal axis Centroidal axis
Sliding connection Welded plates, fixed
pin
Influence of thermal gradient

In the case of a thermal gradient the thermal strain
at the heated part of the structure will be higher
than on the unheated part.
If the structure is allowed to expand unrestrained
the result will be that the member will be bowing.
If the structure instead is restrained moments in
the member will be created, that will level out the
thermal strain at the heated side by an opposite
mechanical strain.
Catenary action
N+
In the late stage of a fire the beam is no

longer acting in bending it will instead act
in catenary action having only tension
stresses
Difference between simplified and

sophisticated method
equal temperature
Different temperature in every Finite Element

Difference between simplified and

sophisticated method
structural calculation for members of a construction
without possibilities to transfer the load to cooler parts
3
structural calculation for whole construction
196.0 196.0 196.0
52.5 49.0 49.0

2
2 3
3 5
5 7
4 1 4 6 8
Example 1: 5-bay frame
As simple members < 23 Minuten

As whole construction: < 28 Minuten
Using HEM 300 instead of HEM 280 for the columns
> 35 Minuten
Example 2:
Calculated with the non-linear FEM program Safir developped at University of Liege
Example 3: Simple beam IPE 300
Example 4: Influence of restraints
The effects of thermal elongation has to be

accounted for
Spalling of concrete has to be accounted for
The integrity of fire insulation has to be
ensured otherwise it should not be
considered.
Supports and connections should be
designed so that they will not collapse
earlier than the construction
Concrete beam with hollow core

bricks
Concrete beam with hollow core

bricks
Advantage of calculations
Better understanding of failure modes =
higher safety
economic design
improvement of construction can be tailor
made
especially in existing buildings the fire
safety of constructions can be given

Built constructions
Engineering,
S 100 44, Sweden
Fire protected column

Fire protected column

Fire walls
Fire walls
Fire walls
Fire walls
Separating lightweight wall and steel

beam

beam

beam
Protected steel beam with a

unprotected hook
Protected steel beam with a

unprotected hook
Concrete protected steel beam


Spalling of concrete
Temperature [C]
1200
Concrete surface with-

1000 out concrete spalling
Steel temperature with-

Steeltemperature with
Gas temperature
400 Steel temperature for
unprotected steell
200
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Zeit [sec]
Several wall constructions


Temperature [C]
1200
Concrete surface with-

Steel temperature with-

Steeltemperature with
Gas temperature
400 Steel temperature for
unprotected steell
200
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Zeit [sec]
Examples of tabulated values

Their are tabulated values for
Concrete constructions
Wooden constructions
Lightweight constructions
Concrete columns
Concrete slabs and walls

Light-weight constructions steel studs
EI 30 EI 60 EI 90
Cladding: 1 x 13 mm gypsum board Cladding: 2 x 13 mm gypsum board Cladding: 3 x 13 mm gypsum board
on each side on each side on each side
Steel stud: 75 mm Steel stud: 75 mm Steel stud: 2 x 75 mm
Light-weight slab constructions

Service penetrations
Their are different ways of sealing service
penetrations
To quench the pipe
To insulate the pipe using intumescent material
To insulate the pipe using material which stores
heat
Materials to seal
service penetrations
Intumescent material
Mortar that expand and is not subject to spalling
0,18
0,16 SystemA 0,3mm

Thermal conductivity [W/mK]
0,14 SystemA 1mm
0,12
SystemA 0,6mm
0,1
System A 1,0 mm 30
kW/m
0,08
System A 1,0 mm 60
0,06 kW/m
System A 1,0 mm 60
0,04 kW/m
0,02
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Temperatur C
Light-weight wall penetrations

Massive wall service penetration

Massive slabs service penetration

Massive slabs service penetration

Tightning with external fire Tightning with internal fire Sealing of a opening used for cable
protection sleeve. In case of fire the protection sleeve. In case of fire penetration. Since the system will not
sleeve will quench the pipe and thus the sleeve will quench the pipe and seal the hole of the cable one should
seal the pipe. thus seal the pipe. ensure that the cables will not be
destroyed by the fire. The number of
cables is limited to 3 to 4.
Plastic Fill out gap

duct with concrete
Fire pro-
tection sleeve
Fire rating
Fill out gap between sleeve and Fire seal
certificate
concrete with concrete, intumescent
material or fire mortar
Window panes
Glass melts at 600C
The breaking of window panes occur due to the
fact that a temperature difference of about 40 K
between different points of a window will make
the window pane to break
Due to the shielding effect of the frame windows
will easily break in a fire

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KTH Stockholm Akustik och brand

Royal Institute of Technology Constructions and material for fire safety

An Exergy Analysis of A Concrete Core

An Exergy Analysis of A Concrete Core

For a fully developped fire

For a fully developped fire

For a fully developped fire

Role of building construction

Role of building construction

An Exergy Analysis of A Concrete Core

Fire safety engineering

Design of Natural Calculation

Fire Safety Engineering

An Exergy Analysis of A Concrete Core

Tim, Department of Civil and Architectural

Classification of building material

will not contribute to fire propagation

but may deteriorate during a fire

contribute to fire propagation

may produce a certain amount of smoke

may form burning droplets

may form burning droplets

may form burning droplets

contribute to fire propagation

may form burning droplets

Test to determine combustability

Single burning item test

Tested material mounted

sandbed gas burner

Oxygen bomb calorimeter

Radiant heating panel is used to measure

Deficiency of classification method

An Exergy Analysis of A Concrete Core

Tim, Department of Civil and Architectural

Role of building constructions

Swedish Building regulations

Swedish Building regulations

Role of the designer

Calculating the Fire Safety

ISO-Curve vs. Natural fire in

Only thermal resistance

Thermal resistance+thermal storage

Thermal resistance+phase change

Dynamic temperature calculations

Temperature field calculation for steel

Dynamic temperature calculations

Can be performed using FEM-calculations

Higher temperature = lower stiffness

lower failure load

Example: Temperature deve-

Steeltemperature Stiffness reduction

Interaction between fire load

Equal fire resistance

Strains in structural member

Effect of thermal strain

Uniformly heated Thermal elongation of

Uniformly heated Internal normal compression N-

Modes of failure for members

Modes of failure for members

Axial thrust for members

Influence of thermal gradient

In the late stage of a fire the beam is no

Difference between simplified and