asurement Environ

The environment in which logging tools take

measurements is important to the interpretation of the
resulting logs. That is, the environment affects the log
measurements. And so must be understood to correctly
interpret the logs. There are factors to be considered
1. Rock Layers
2. Temperature and Pressure Increase with Depth
3. Washouts
4. Rugosity
5. Borehole Fluids While Logging
6. Invasion of Mud Filtrate
Rock Layers
Formations were laid down and are found today
in layers.
Thickness varies from fraction of inch to hundreds of feet
Typically ~feet
Even a thin two ft thick layer can be very productive.
Layers are often found tilted (non-horizontal)
Logging tools were designed for horizontal and thick layers
(2 to 10+ ft)
Thinner layers and higher deviation layers can degrade log
measurements.
Temperature and Pressure Increase with Depth

Both temperature and Pressure increase with depth.

Important for Open Hole logging because:
Temperature and Pressure ratings of tool
A logging job could destroy an expensive tool if temperature
or pressure exceed tools rating.
Resistivity of formation water, Rw, (discussed later) changes
significantly as temperature changes up and down the borehole.
Must be accounted for
Important for hydrocarbon detection and quantification
Washouts
A smooth, bit-size wellbore is desired for best quality
log data.
Sometimes sections of the wellbore washout,
producing large diameter sections called washouts.
Washouts can make log data useless over the
washout.
Especially the density
Washout
Then the neutron
Then resistivity devices to a lesser extent
Acoustic is often not significantly affected
Rugosity
A smooth, bit-size wellbore is desired for best quality log
data.
Sometimes sections of the wellbore are very rough, though
not enlarged significantly.
This roughness is called rugosity.
Cannot always see rugosity on logs, eg caliper.
Rugosity affects mainly contact logging devices: Rugosity

Especially the density

Then micro-resistivity devices
The neutron, acoustic, and deep & medium resistivities
are not significantly affected by rugosity
Borehole Fluids While Logging
The fluid in the wellbore during open hole
logging will affect the response of the logging tool to some extent.
Normally the fluid will be mud.
The wellbore fluid will also affect the choice of resistivity tool.
The main mud types are
Fresh muds (low salt content, the most common)
Salt muds (high salt content)
Oil based muds (non-conductive)
Fresh muds and oil based muds require the
induction resistivity tool.
Salt muds require laterolog type tools.
Sometimes the various tools, especially induction and neutron, require
environmental corrections to correct for the effects of borehole fluids,
and invasion of mud filtrate into the formation.
Invasion of Mud Filtrate
During drilling, the mud pressure in the
wellbore is greater than the formation fluid pressure (or blowout).
Due to its greater pressure, mud tries to invade the rock.
Mud is formulated such that a thin tough layer with low permeability forms
on borehole wall:
Called mudcake
Some of the mud-liquids, called mud filtrate,
goes into the formation

Too much mud overpressure while drilling a

well can cause later production problems due to formation damage.
The wrong kind of mud for an area can cause later production problems
due to formation damage. Such as causing certain shales to swell and thus
killing formation permeability
Invasion affects all main open hole logs
Resistivity and porosity measurements
Invasion occurs to different diameters
Invasion affects the various resistivity
measurements in differing amounts
depending upon their depths of
investigation

Note: Most logging tools are designed for 7 7/8

diameter boreholes.
Applied
logging
methods
 Wireline logging methods can be classified following the
(physical) principle of measurement as shown. There are two
fundamental types:

1) Passive tools measure properties or parameters delivered

by the formation or by interaction of the formation and the
borehole-fluid without any source (e.g. natural Gamma-
measurement/Gammalog, Spontaneous Potential/Self
Potential).

2) Active tools measure the answer to a signal, pulse,

radiation, current, i.e. the result of an interaction with the
formation in the vicinity of the tool. Typically they have a
source and one or more detectors (e.g. Gamma-Gamma-Log,
Acousticlog, Resistivitylogs).
LITHOLOGY INDICATORS & VSHALE
Knowing the lithology, and percent of shale, of the formation being
interpreted is important.
The first determination of lithology normally done is shale versus
non-shale.
Several ways exist of determining lithology, and shale volume.
NOTE: Strictly speaking, we should use the term mineralogy, not
lithology. Mineralogy is the chemical composition of a formation,
whereas lithology is the chemical composition as well as the texture of
the formation. Our logs respond only to mineralogy (except for NMR
tools), but almost the entire industry uses (incorrectly) the term
lithology to mean mineralogy in log interpretation.
 But first Lets talk about
Shale
is the most common rock type.
Is a major problem for OH log interpreters
Consists of complex and varying mixture of clays, quartz (sandstone) and other
minerals.
Composition can vary rapidly
Composition usually assumed constant over short distances (tens to hundreds
feet)
Has a lot of bound water, some more than others
One source states that shales generally
are composed commonly of 50 to 70% clay,
25 to 45% silt and quartz of clay size, and
5% other minerals that include feldspars and carbonates.
Is a loose term
Shale comes in three different geometries:
Laminated
Thin layer(s) of shale among clean layers of rock
Common in shaly sandstones
Dispersed
Shale dispersed (scattered) throughout another rock type
Volume of shale can vary widely
Common in shaly sandstones
Structual
Load bearing shale dispersed with other load bearing non-
shale grains.
Cannot distinguish from dispersed on logs
Shale occurs mainly in sandstones, seldom in
limestone or dolomite.
Dispersed shales seem to be more common than
laminated shales in nature.
From a practical point of view, any sandstone with less
than 10 to 15% shale may be considered clean (non-
shaly)
The lithology indicators are:
Gamma Ray
Spontaneous Potential
Caliper
Neutron-Density Combination
Resistivity
Photo-electric (Pe) from Litho-Density
The quantitative volume of shale can be
determined by a number of methods.
Often an analyst will compute all and use the
lowest at each depth, as most errors tend to over-
estimate the volume fraction of shale (Vsh)
Gamma Ray
What Is Measured:
The gamma ray (GR) measures the naturally occurring gamma ray
radioactivity of the rocks in the earth. It is a type of nuclear log.
Different type rocks give off different gamma ray intensities.
The Measurement:
A gamma ray detector measures the intensity of gamma rays.
The intensity of the gamma radiation from the rocks is usually measured
in API units (American Petroleum Institute), which is a set of units
defined for this specific application.
Some measurements may be in counts per second, and a few older
measurements are in various other units.
Interpretation of Gamma Ray:
The gamma ray distinguishes shale from non- shale, and is used to
quantify the volume fraction of shale. It is a good shale indicator, often
the best.
Shale has high GR values
- Average of 100 API units, by definition
Non-shale has low GR values
Usually
Uncommon, but can have high GR from a non-shale
typical values 20 40 API
Partly shaly formations have GR values between
clean rock and shale.
The volume fraction of shale (Vsh) is usually assumed
proportional between clean (no shale) GR reading and all-
shale GR reading.
Natural gamma activity of minerals and rocks is
originated by
Uranium-radium series (half-life time of 4.4109years)
Thorium series (half-life time of 1.4109 years)
Potassium K40 (half-life time of 1.3109 years)

Occurrence and behavior of the three components in

rocks are different. The abundance of these elements or
isotopes in a formation controls the intensity of
detectable natural radioactivity.

- Typical minerals forming the clean reservoirs

(quartz, calcite, dolomite) have no gamma activity,
- Clay minerals in general are characterized by a higher
content with a big scatter and different content of
individual clay types,
- Mica and K-feldspar also show high concentration
creating natural gamma radiation.
Vsh from the GR is calculated by:
GRGRclean
Vsh(GR) = GRshaleGRclean

Where
Vsh(GR) = Volume fraction of shale from
Gamma Ray, fraction
GR= GR reading of log at depth of
interest
GRclean = GR reading of clean rock
Grshale = GR reading of 100% shale
The interpreter chooses Grclean,
Grshale, and GR off the log.
GRclean is typically 20 to 50 API units
Grshale is typically 90 to 120 API
units
Note that one could use chart divisions
instead of API units to calculate Vsh (will
get the same answer).
Example of GR log with clean and shale line EXAMPLE: Vsh From Gamma Ray
What is the volume of shale fraction as
indicated by the Gamma Ray [Vsh(GR)] on the
log of the previous page at the depth of 10220
ft (where the Gamma Ray log is reading 3.2
divisions from the left).

SHALE
ANSWER:
3.2 divisions at the zone of interest is 52 API
units.
From the log, the clean line is 20 API divisions.
From the log, the shale line is 102 API units.
CLEAN

GRGRclean
Vsh(GR) = GRshaleGRclean
5220
= 10220
Vsh(GR) = .39
2000-2004 RSE, Inc. 105
Environmental Effects:
The gamma ray is affected by
Thin beds
Absorption of radiation in the borehole fluid:
influence of caliper (large hole and washouts)
and mud density (heavy mud)
Mud type: KCl muds increase potassium count rate
Logging speed: influences statistics and vertical resolution
(in LWD, based on ROP)
All reduce the measured gamma ray. Environmental correction charts exist
to correct the GR to standard conditions for both hole size (including
washouts), and for mud weight.
When the hole diameter (caliper) varies a lot over the interval of interest,
then gamma ray corrections may be needed.
Usually the GR curve is used as recorded
without applying these environmental corrections.
The environmental corrections are usually applied only when the highest possible
accuracy is needed, such as in equity determinations, or when extreme changes in
caliper exists. For interpretations where less accuracy is needed, such as wildcat
interpretations, such corrections are usually not applied.

When the hole size is relatively constant, the

measured GR is changed from standard conditions by the same multiplier
everywhere. This means that for most applications, such as shale volume
calculations, the gamma ray values can be used as recorded.
Spontaneous Potential

What Is Measured:

The spontaneous potential, also called self potential and SP, measures
naturally occurring voltages (potentials) occurring in the wellbore opposite
porous and permeable formations.

The Measurement:
The measurement consists of an electrode on the logging tool, and an
electrode at the surface (such as in the mud pit). The voltage difference
between these two electrodes is made. The voltage is due to a combination
of shale formations acting as a semi-permeable membrane between the
formation water and the borehole, and also to a potential at the junction of
mud filtrate (Rmf) and formation water (Rw) in the formation.

Bed boundary is at inflection point on SP.
Cannot obtain valid SP in oil based mud
At higher formation resistivities SP loses
vertical resolution (smears)
In salt mud SP tendsto be straight line.
ORIGIN OF THE SP POTENTIAL
Note the two components to the
measured SP, namely junction of Rmf &
Rw, and shale acting as a semi-
permeable membrane.
Interpretation of SP
The SP indicates shale vs non-shale.
It can be used to calculate the volume fraction of shale.
It can also be used to calculate the water resistivity of the formation water.
The SP can also be considered a binary permeability indicator, either YES (some
permeability) or NO (no permeability, such as shales). If permeability is present,
the SP does not tell how much permeability is present, only that some small
amount (or more) of permeability is present.
An SP excursion to the left of the shale line (in direction of sand) is normally
taken as a negative SP, measured from the shale line, e.g. -45 mv. The shale line
is thus taken as zero voltage.
The origin of spontaneous potential
(Figure 4-14) is a charge exchange process
driven by the difference of concentration
(salinity) between formation water and
the mud filtrate . The concentration
difference (in most cases is ) results in
an ion motion controlled by the
electrochemical properties of the

permeable sandstone creating a

negative diffusion potential as result of
the higher mobility of the positive Na-ions

non-permeable shale creating a positive

membrane potential as result of the
anion-blocking (ion-selectivity) of the clay
minerals.
Shales have a SP lying on the right side of the log grid (higher voltage). Clean,
permeable rocks lie on the left side (lower voltage). This scaling is set so the SP
swings in the same directions as the GR when the shale content changes.
Units of SP are milli-volts (mv).
The separation between clean and shale is key.
Typical separation is 50 to 100 mv
Partly shaly rock have an intermediate voltage separation, taken to be
proportional to shale volume.
The SP is usually very repeatable.
Usually the SP follows the GR closely.
When SP and GR disagree, usually the GR is the better shale indicator.
EXERCISE SP1
Identify the permeable and impermeable zones
The saltier the formation water, the larger the SP
development (farther excursion to left of shale
baseline).
The fresher the formation water, the less SP
development.
For formation waters fresher than the mud filtrate,
which sometimes occurs at very shallow depths, the
SP will reverse in sands and go to

the right of the shale baseline. Sometimes this is

seen on logs at very shallow depths (less than
about 2000 ft) as water resistivities are usually
much fresher at shallow depths.

EXERCISE SP2
For the log of exercise SP1, list the sands in
order of shaliness.
Environmental Effects:
The main environmental effect on the SP is
bed thickness. If a bed is too thin, the full SP
will not develop. Charts exist to correct for
this effect.
As a rule of thumb, if a bed is 20 feet thick or
greater, the bed thickness correction is not
significant and can be ignored.
Second rule of thumb:
The other common environmental effect on
the SP is the hydrocarbon effect.
Hydrocarbons in the formation, either oil or
gas, will reduce the SP development. There
is no common correction for the hydrocarbon
effect on the SP.
Other fairly rare effects can affect the
recorded SP value. If a SP curve looks
suspect, use the GR curve instead for shale
volume.
Usually the SP is used as recorded, except in
cases where the highest accuracy is needed,
or in extreme cases.
 Caliper
What is Measured: The caliper measures the
diameter of the borehole.
The Measurement: Measures the extension of
one or more arms.
Different types of calipers are used:
2-arm (sometimes called one arm):
Gives distance across one diameter.
Usually rides in the largest diameter
(max diameter)
.
Example: Density, micrologs
3-arm
If borehole is not perfectly circular, will
often gives smaller diameter than two arm
caliper.
A difference between two and three arm
calipers indicates an elliptical hole
Three arm calipers are usually on sonic or a
sensor designed to measure only caliper.
 4-arm
Usually on Dipmeter (Atlas: Diplog).
Called X-Y Caliper
X is one direction, Y is other.
Usually gives largest, and smallest,
diameters of the hole.
Density logs have a pad designed to cut
through mud cake as much as possible.
Microresistivity pads do not cut through
as much mud cake.
Therefore, size and pressure of the
contacting arms also affect the measured
data.

Four Arm
EXAMPLE showing 4 arm caliper.
Caliper
Note the shaded non-circular shaped borehole.
6-arm
On Baker Atlas 6-arm Dipmeter (HDIP).
Six independent caliper radii measurements.

Differential Caliper Curve

- Is difference between caliper and bit size Non-
(caliper minus bit size). Some logs have circular
caliper plotted in this form instead of hole borehole
diameter. Useful for spotting mud cake &
washouts.
Caliper measurements can be done in open and cased wells with all
borehole fluids (gas or air, water, water or oil-based mud).
Nowadays, industry is offering
The diameter of the borehole as a function of the depth is measured Multi-Finger Caliper.
with a Caliper log. There are two principles: E.g. 60-MFC, 90-MFC

a) Mechanical systems (Figure 4-1): One or more pads are pressed

against the borehole wall during upward motion. The angle between
pad mechanism and tool axis is a measure of the pad distance from
the tool axis. 2-arm, 3-arm, 4-arm and 6-arm caliper tools are in use.
Sophisticated tools deliver the diameter in different azimuths with
orientation from a gyro system. Frequently the pad holds other
measuring systems (for example microresistivity).

b) Acoustic systems: Ultrasonic Caliper or Acoustic borehole

televiewer deliver a circular two-way travel time from the
rotating transmitter-receiver-system to the borehole wall.
Conversion into a distance via mud wave velocity gives a
detailed azimuthal caliper. (example of imaging techniques)

The caliper log is part of a graphic log presentation

(mostly left trace). It is mostly named CAL or CALI and presented
in inch or cm.
Interpretation of Caliper
The caliper measures a diameter of the
borehole.
2) A caliper less than bit size usually indicates
1) Sometimes the caliper indicates lithology
mud cake, meaning permeability.
(shale vs non-shale).
Formations with mud cake, as indicated by the
Some wells show this strongly, some do not.
caliper, have some permeability (to allow mud
Good quality reservoir rock does not usually filtrate invasion and thus mud cake formation).
wash out, so the caliper will be about bit size,
Look for mud cake indications on the caliper as
and usually constant and smooth in good
a permeability indicator.
reservoir rock.
Microlog Caliper
Shales often wash out. Thus a washout, as
indicated on the caliper, often indicates a shale.
The calipers shape will often match the GR and Mud cake
SP. Look for caliper washouts as a qualitative (Permeable zone,
shale indicator. The caliper is not used reservoir rock)
quantitatively to calculate Vsh.

Bit Size

Washout
(probable shale)
EXERCISE Caliper 1
Environmental Effects:
Where is the likely reservoir rock in this
interval? Is there any mud cake? Where? There are no environmental effects on the
Sonic Caliper caliper (other than mud cake thickness).
Thus we do not make any environmental
corrections.
7000
Can verify calibration of caliper if log up into
casing and check caliper reading against casing
ID as looked up in a table for that casings OD
and weight per foot.

Caliper

Bit
Size

7050

EXERCISE Caliper 2
Where is likely shale in this interval?
Neutron-Density Combination
The neutron and density combination is a
very powerful combination.
The combination allows an analyst to
calculate a porosity and Vsh simultaneously.
It also allows lithology determination of
other rock types, such as anhydrite, gypsum,
etc.
The equations for calculating Vsh and
porosity from the neutron-density
combination is discussed in detail in the
later section Combination of Neutron &
Density.
Resistivity
Resistivity logs can be used to qualitatively
indicate shale from non-shale.
Shale reads low, about constant, and around 1
ohm-m. The shallow resistivity almost always
reads a constant amount higher than the deep
and medium, ~ 1ohm-m higher.
Shale will seldom be found above 5 ohm-m.
In clean water sands the deep resistivity reads
below the shale resistivity.
In oil sands the resistivity reads above the
shale resistivity (usually).
In shaly sands, the resistivity moves towards
the shale resistivity as shale volume
increases, and away from the shale resistivity
as the shale volume decreases. Often
correlates to GR, SP changes.
Dipmeter logs
(Baker Atlas: Diplog: 4 arm; HDIP: 6 arm)

-Determines the dip and direction (azimuth) of formation

bedding planes

-From slight offset of 4 (or 6) microresistivity traces taken

around the borehole

Offset concept: Dip and its azimuth determined from the

slight depth offsets of each trace when encountering a new
formation.

Applications of Dipmeters
Determine the dip and azimuth of each formation
Locate faults and unconformities
Allow a stratigraphic interpretation
Gives structural dip
Positions next well to be drilled
Determine the direction for sidetracks
Determine the geometry of the borehole
 The measured Pe is only slightly affected by
porosity variations and fluid content variations,
Photo-Electric from Litho-Density and so can be used to determine lithology.
The Pe for the seven main rock types are:
The photo-electric curve from the litho-density
Pe (barns/electron)
log indicates lithology. The curve is more
formally known as the Photoelectric Sandstone 1.81
Absorption Factor, Pe.
Limestone 5.08
The Litho-density tool is an expanded version
Dolomite 3.14
of the basic density tool.
Shale ~2 to 4, avg= 3.4
The term litho indicates that Pe is also
measured. Anhydrite 5.05
The first density logs (without the Litho) did Gypsum 3.42
not measure Pe.
Salt (halite) 4.65
The Pe is used to determine lithology.
[Barite 267.]
A selection of low energy gamma rays from the
tools gamma ray source is used to measure Pe. (See density log section for table with more Pe
Pe is linked to the average atomic number of values)
the nuclei in the formation, and thus the A major limitation of the Pe is the presence of
lithology. barite. Barite is often added to mud systems as
weighing material. Its presence in even small
amounts in a mud system will render the
Pe curve much too high and useless, due to the
very high Pe reading of barite.
RESISTIVITY LOGS
In 1927, the Schlumberger brothers started the development of well
logging with the first electrical resistivity measurement. In 1942, Archie published
the fundamentals of interpretation of electrical resistivity logs with his famous
equations. Both resistivity measurement and Archie-based interpretation are
also todays cornerstones of well logging particularly for determination of water
saturation. The resistivity of a formation is a key parameter in determining
hydrocarbon saturation. Electricity can pass through a clean formation only
because of the conductive water it contains.

The unit of resistivity is ohm-m.

Formation resistivity covers a broad range of magnitudes from about 0.1 to 1000
Ohm-m, depending on porosity, water saturation, salinity, and shalyness.
Water Resistivity, Rw
The resistivity of water is determined by its:
Salinity
Temperature
Comments:
- Salinity can change in a well, usually doesnt (unless very shallow, less than
2000 ft)
- Rw values typical range: 0.01 to several ohm-m. -Usually salty, ~0.05 ohm-m
Note:
- Water only, due to its salinity, usually has a low resistivity, ~.05 ohm-m.
- Hydrocarbons (oil and gas) have a very high resistivity (infinite for our
purposes)
In a certain rock, the resistivity of water (Rw) will increase due to the presence
of the non-conducting grains , and will be called Ro.

Ro is total formation resistivity when the formation is filled only with water.
Rt is total formation resistivity, no matter what fluids are present. (i.e. water
and/or HC)
Shaly Zone
(Water & grains & HC & shale: resistivity Rt)
-The resistivity will decrease over that of water and grains and
hydrocarbon, due to the somewhat conducting shale. Thus shale causes the
log resistivity to decrease in a pay zone.
-The resistivity will increase over that of only water and sand grains,
due to the somewhat higher resistivity of shale. Thus shale causes the log
resistivity to increase in a water zone.

Mud (Rm), Mud Filtrate (Rmf), & Mud Cake (Rmc) Resistivity
Rule of thumb:
Rmf = .85 X Rm
Rmc = 1.3 X Rm
Rm can be found on log header, and sometimes Rmf and Rmc.
Measured values are better than rule of thumb values. Use measured values
if available.
Pay zones virtually always consist of a combination of water (low resistivity),
hydrocarbon
(high resistivity), matrix grains (high resistivity), and perhaps shale (moderate
resistivity).

Resistivity as Applied to Rocks

Resistivity tools measure the resistivity of the formation.
The measurement includes the totality of the formation:
Matrix
Contents of pores (water and any oil, gas)
Shale
Each of these constituents affects the log measured formation resistivity
(total resistivity, Rt)
And only three things can cause the resistivity to go to high values:
Low porosity
Hydrocarbons
Fresh formation water
Resistivity Measuring Tools

Induction - induces an electrical current in the rock and measures

how large it is
Laterolog - sends current into the rock and measures the ease of
its flow.

The induction tool should be run in fresh muds, oil based

muds, and lower formation resistivities (preferably under 200 ohm-
m).

The laterolog type tool should be run in salt muds, and does
best with high resistivity formations (~100 to 2000+ ohm-m).
Induction Logs
This tool is basically a conductivity seeking
(Baker Atlas: High-Definition Induction Log device. It is sensitive to and measures
(HDIL))
conductivity (as opposed to resistivity).
What is Measured:
Resistivity is then computed from the
Induction logs measure the resistivity of the conductivity, and output on the log.
formation.
Most muds are fresh muds (water based muds)
The Measurement: Basic Principle of Induction Tool
Induction tools sends an alternating current
through a transmitter coil.
The alternating magnetic field thereby created
induces currents in the formation in circles
(loops) around the tool.
These induced current loops in turn create a
magnetic field that induces a voltage in a
receiver coil. This voltage is measured.
The receiver coil voltage is related to the
resistivity of the formation.
In practice, multiple receiver coils are used.
TYPES OF INDUCTION TOOLS EXAMPLE ARRAY INDUCTION LOG

ARRAY INDUCTION
- Array induction tools have a large number of
receiver coils (7 for the HDIL, spaced from 6 to 94
inches), and uses multiple frequencies (8 for the HDIL,
from 10 to 150 khz).
The depths of investigation are: 10, 20, 30, 60, 90 & 120
inches for Baker Atlas. Schlumberger has the same
depths except does not have the 120 inch curve.

The array tools have environmental effect corrections

(borehole, invasion) already built into their outputs
(but no shoulder bed correction). A dip correction can
be applied (only needed if dip over 20 to 30 degrees)
Washouts can cause artifacts (incorrect resistivity
values) at bed boundaries.
DUAL INDUCTION
- Dual induction tool sends an alternating current
(20 kHz) of constant intensity through a transmitter coil.
Dual induction tools contain two different coil
arrangements in one tool to give two different depths of
investigation. Output voltage converted directly to resistivity
by lab calibration.
Thus have three different depths of investigation, which allows
dealing with mud filtrate invasion in the interpretation.

The dual induction resistivity curves have not

been corrected for borehole effects or invasion effects (nor for
dipping bed effects or shoulder bed effects).

Environmental Effects:
Mud resistivity
Hole diameter
Tool standoff
Bed thickness
Shoulder bed resistivity
Laterolog Logs
(Baker Atlas: Dual Laterolog, DLL)
What is Measured
The Laterolog measures formation resistivity.
The Measurement
Laterologs force a current from electrodes in the tool body through the
mud and into the formation. Thus, it makes a resistivity measurement in a
series circuit.
Guard currents are used to focus the emitted current and force the
current deep into the formation.
Since the current has to go through the mud, conductive (salty ) muds are
needed to minimize the mud effect on the measurement.
Laterologs will not work in non-conductive muds (oil based muds or
air).
Two laterolog measurements are made, one deep and one shallow(er).
The guard electrodes used and the frequency are adjusted to obtain two
different depths of investigation, deep and shallow. Usually the deep
reading resistivity is sufficient to use for true resistivity.
Environmental Effects
The Laterolog is sensitive to the following environmental parameters:
Borehole size
Mud resistivity
Bed thickness
We can say that
Both the Induction log and the Laterolog are affected by hole size, and by bed
thickness.
The hole size effect is not significant unless the hole is unusually large, or the wrong
type of tool is used for the mud type.
Likewise the bed thickness effect is only significant for thin beds.
Invasion Effects and Shallow Resistivity Devices
Invasion of mud filtrate into the formation occurs in virtually all wells. Mud
filtrate invasion affects the resistivity measurement. The shallower devices will see the
mud filtrate. In most wells the mud filtrate is fresh, so the shallow reading device will
read a higher resistivity than the deeper devices in water zones.
POROSITY LOGS The porosity from any one can be used by itself
(after shale correction if needed).
Three Main Porosity Logs
Or, much more commonly, the porosity resulting
from combining the neutron and density can be
used (see later section Combination of Density
& Neutron).

In the case of a mixture of three lithologies

(uncommon) plus porosity, all three porosity
tools may be used together to calculate lithology
volumes and porosity. This is called a mixed
lithology situation. The most common example
is in carbonates with a mixture of limestone,
dolomite and anhydrite (or gypsum). Using
combined porosities is the only way to determine
the true porosity with conventional logging tools
in three-lithology situations.
1) Density Log Density Tool
(Baker Atlas: Compensated Z-Densilog, ZDL)

What is Measured
The bulk density of the formation is measured.
The Measurement
A pad device presses against borehole wall.
A gamma ray source in pad emits gamma rays. Two
gamma detectors detect scattered gamma rays.
The number of counts is related to the number of
scattered gamma rays, which is related to the number of
electrons per unit volume, which is related closely to
density.
A second gamma ray detector with a different distance
from the source (spacing) is added to correct for mud
cake between pad and formation.
The count rates from the two detectors are
automatically entered into a spine and ribs chart. Density Spine & Ribs chart to convert count
rates into bulk formation density.
The newer tools subtract the low energy
photoelectric counts from the count rates before
entering the spine and ribs chart.
This empirically determined chart gives a mud cake
corrected formation bulk density, and also the
amount of mud cake correction.
Thus a density log gives the interpreter:
Formation bulk density (already automatically
corrected for mud cake) in g/cc
The amount of mud cake correction, , in g/cc
A caliper (one arm), from the eccentering arm, in
inches
Pe (if a Litho or Z type density tool) in barns
per electron.
 Example Density Log
The density log is scaled with high density
on the right, low density on the left
(so low porosity is on the right, high porosity on
the left).
Sometimes the density is plotted as porosity,
sometimes as density, sometimes as both.

NOTE: All openhole porosity logs are scaled so

they will track resistivity logs in water zones.
That is, an increase in porosity will
cause a left movement of both resistivity and
porosity curves in water zones. A decrease
in porosity will cause both the porosity and
resistivity curves to move to the right in water
zones.
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Interpretation of Density Log B. Quantitative Interpretation
The density is probably the best individual Calculate porosity from the density for a
porosity measurement. It is also the most clean (non-shaly) formation by:
error prone in bad hole (see QC comments
on the next slide) but normally it gives
good results. When used in conjunction
with the neutron (neutron-density Where
combination), it is a very powerful log = log measured formation density, g/cc
measurement.
ma = density of matrix (grains) of rock, g/cc
Porosity reduces the formation density. f = density of filtrate in formation (mud
A. Qualitative Interpretation filtrate), g/cc
To find a good-quality high-porosity clean The common matrix densities are:
reservoir rock, look for the density curve to go Sandstone: 2.65 g/cc
to the left (towards higher porosity). Densities Limestone: 2.71 g/cc
far to the right are the low porosity (tight) Dolomite: 2.87 g/cc
streaks
f = 1.0 g/cc
EXAMPLE: Porosity from Density
The density log reads 2.38 g/cc in a
clean limestone formation. What is the
porosity of the limestone?
 Example of Bad Density (& Neutron) Spots
Environmental Effects
The main environmental effects on the
density measurement are:

washed out hole

and rugose hole

Bad D, N spots
Washouts
Both cause the density log to see mud and thus read
too low a density, too high an apparent porosity.
As a pad contact device, environmental corrections
are not usually needed or applied to the density log,
with the fairly rare exception of borehole size
correction. This is typically a small correction that is
not usually needed unless the hole diameter is quite
large (over ~12 inches).

Neutron
Caliper

Density
Shale correction, gas correction, and data editing for
washouts, rugosity or too high are needed.
Look for high porosity spikes, and see if caliper shows washout.
Edit density by connecting last good points on either side with
straight line
Shale Effects on Density Logs & Shale Correction for Density:
Shale Correction
SS with Porosity Sh
Shale affects the density logs, but less than the
neutron and acoustic porosity logs.
Vss Vsh
Shale Effect:
Density log reads:
Shale density typically looks like 15 to 30%
porosity to the density log, so an increase in the DENlog = Vss DENss + Vsh DENsh By
shale content of a rock can look like a decrease
converting to porosity one obtains:
or an increase in porosity to the density log
depending upon the rocks porosity. DPORlog = Vss DPORss + Vsh DPORsh
Actual Sandstone with some shale (Vsh): The desired true porosity is (Vss DPORss).
Shale
Solving for (Vss DPORss) the True Porosity:
SS grains &
Porosity PORtrue = DPORlog - Vsh DPORsh
Wave magic wand and separate This is the equation to shale correct the density.
shale into one part of the formation
Shaly Sand Note that the shale correction equations for all
SS with Porosity Sh Model porosity logs are the same as this.
Quantities are defined on next page.
Vss Vsh
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2) Neutron Log
(Baker Atlas: Compensated Neutron Log, CN)
What is Measured
The neutron log measures the hydrogen content of the
formation. This is converted to an equivalent water filled
porosity by lab calibration
The Measurement
Neutron particles are emitted from a radioactive
(chemical) source. Such as plutonium-beryllium or
americium-beryllium.
These are fast neutrons (4 to 6 MEV).
These fast neutrons collide with atomic nuclei and are
slowed down by the collisions mostly with hydrogen
nuclei, which have a mass almost identical to the
neutron (most effective slowing mass).
After colliding a certain number of times and traveling a
certain distance the neutrons slow down to a slow
(thermal) speed. At this speed they are captured much
more readily by a nucleus.
Two detectors located different distances away
from the source detect these thermal neutrons,
but not faster neutrons. The second detector
makes the tool less sensitive to hole size and
washouts.
When a lot of hydrogen is present, as in high
porosity water or oil filled formations, the
neutrons are thermalized quickly and near the
source.
When only a small amount of hydrogen is
present, as in low porosity water or oil filled
formations, the neutrons travel much farther
on the average before becoming thermalized
and detected
Gas has a low hydrogen density, so that gas
zones have a very low apparent porosity
The ratio of the count rates in the two detectors
is indicative of the (equivalent water filled)
porosity.
The ratio is calibrated in terms of water filled
porosity.

The type of rock plays some role in the process,

so the neutron is calibrated for a specific rock
type, limestone or sandstone.

In carbonate environments, a neutron log is

usually run with a limestone calibration.

In shaly sand environments, a neutron log is

usually run with a sandstone calibration.
When doing quantitative work with the neutron
log, it is always advisable to check the matrix
type of the neutron log calibration. The
matrix used for calibration should be given
on the log (usually in the tail).
Interpretation of Neutron Log
While the neutron log is usually interpreted
in conjunction with the density curve, the
following is directed towards the
interpretation of the neutron curve by itself.
Qualitative Interpretation
All porosity logs are scaled so the porosity
increases to the left.
Thus qualitative interpretation consists of
looking for the curve increasing towards
the left (increasing porosity), which is not
caused by a washout (look at caliper) or
increasing shale content (look at lithology
indicators, mainly GR and SP).
Quantitative Interpretation
In a clean formation and if the neutron tool is
calibrated to the same lithology as the formation
of interest (and the hole diameter is good),
simply read the porosity of the log.
Be sure to verify the calibration matrix (given
on the log, usually in the parameters list, usually
listed as Matrix: Lime for limestone or
Matrix: Sand for sandstone calibration).
Dolomite calibration is seldom used.
If the calibration matrix is different than the
actual formation, a correction should be made.
Charts exist for this correction.
Note that, unlike the density and
acoustic which measure physical properties, the
neutron charts are dependent upon both the tool
manufacturer and the exact tool model. Thus
charts for a specific model tool should be used for
calibration correction, and environmental
corrections.
Environmental Effects Quality Control of Neutron Logs:
How to Spot & Edit Bad Data
Charts exist to correct neutron logs for
environmental effects, such as: Quality control the neutron log by looking at
the neutron porosity curve for unusually high
Borehole size
spikes at locations of washouts. (The tool is
Mud Cake Thickness sensing the liquid in the washout.)
Borehole fluid salinity Also look at the caliper curve for washouts and
then at the neutron curve at the washout
Formation salinity
locations for possible bad neutron data (data
Mud weight unreasonably high compared to the other data
Standoff distance (of tool from boreholewall) in the well).

Pressure These washout induced spikes are spurious.

Borehole temperature

Note: In most cases these corrections are

small for compensated (dual detector) neutron tools and these
corrections are usually
ignored.
One usually edits these spikes by
drawing a straight line between the last
good points on either side of the spike.

Neutron curve

Edit
Spurious spike

Rugosity is not a problem with a neutron

tool. (Like it is with the density contact
tool.)
3) Acoustic Log
(Baker Atlas: XMAC ELITE, XMAC,
Digital Acoustilog [DAL])
measures the velocity of elastic waves (or
slowness, the inverse property) of the
formation.
Therefore in general elastic properties
of the formation are investigated with
the measurement. Results give
information about porosity, lithology, and
supports seismic exploration.
The acoustic (sonic) log is a commonly
run log.
It is often run with the density-neutron.
The acoustic is generally not as good a
porosity tool as the density and neutron. It
tends to be more qualitative, especially in
shaly formations.
TYPES OF ACOUSTIC TOOLS
Borehole-Compensated Compressional
Wave Travel Time Tool
ARRAY ACOUSTIC
Other Uses of Acoustic Log Data
Use for seismic correlation (convert seismic time to
depth more accurately)
Compute synthetic seismograms
Through casing Neutron-Acoustic gas detection
Predict sand production in unconsolidated formations
Estimate relative permeability
Borehole stability and trajectory prediction
Overpressure zone detection (larger
compressional travel time in shales)
Conventional cement bond log (CBL-VDL)
What is Measured
When a sound train is generated in a formation, four
types of waves are typically generated and typically
reach receivers in the following order:
Compressional wave (also called P wave, or
Longitudinal wave)
Shear wave (also called S wave, or
Transverse wave)
Rayleigh wave
Stoneley wave (also called Tube wave)
The older acoustic tools measured only the travel
time per foot of compressional sound waves (P-
waves) through the formation (tc). The newer array
acoustic tools measure the compressional travel time
per foot and additionally measure the travel time per
foot of shear waves (S-waves) through the formation
(ts).
Moreover, the new tools can also optionally measure
the shear waves travel time per foot through the
formation along four sides of the borehole or 90
degrees around the borehole and compare the travel
times. This is called a cross dipole measurement.
Furthermore, the full acoustic waveform can also
optionally be recorded.
Rayleigh waves can be detected on the full acoustic
waveform, but are seldom used.
Stoneley wave data (also called Tube wave) can
also be obtained from the full waveform.
The units of travel time per foot are microseconds
per foot (s/ft) for both compressional waves and
shear waves. The travel time per foot is also called
the slowness.
COMPRESSIONAL WAVES (P-Waves)
Compressional waves are waves such as the
sound waves that humans hear.
Compressional waves are alternating
compressions and rarifications caused in the
media by some source. The compressions and
rarifications, and also the direction of the
particle motion, are along the direction of
propagation of the wave.
A sphere that alternatively expands and
contracts in diameter in water or any liquid
or air will generate a compressional wave.
Compressional waves can also exist in solids.
STONELEY WAVES
Stoneley waves are slow moving,
SHEAR WAVES (S-Waves)
Shear waves are waves with particle motions
that move up and down perpendicular to the
direction of wave propagation. Shear waves
are caused by something pushing the solid
sideways.
Shear waves can only exist in solids, not
in liquids or air.
Shear waves always travel slower than
compressional waves in the same media.
RAYLEIGH WAVES
Rayleigh waves are waves with an eleptical
motion.
low
This tool has a acoustic transmitter (monopole)
that transmits a compressional sound wave
through the mud, into the formation, through the
formation near the wellbore wall, and back
through the mud to a receiver.

In order to remove the travel time through the

mud to the formation, the tool uses two receivers.

The time of the first sound arrival at each

receiver is measured. The time difference between
receivers divided by the separation between the
receivers is the travel time per foot.

The log curve is given in units of microseconds

per foot. This is often referred to as interval
travel time or simply travel time.
In practice, to account for any tilt of the tool Compensated Acoustic Tool
in the borehole and borehole size variations, a second transmitter
on the other end of the tool is used, sometimes also with two
additional receivers and sometimes with the original two
receivers.

The time difference per foot for the second

transmitter with its pair of receivers is also measured, and
averaged with that from the first, to generate a borehole
compensated sonic log.
Sometimes two spacings between transmitter and receivers are
used, resulting in two sonic curves: short spaced and long spaced.
Note that the sound energy travels through the liquid mud filtrate
in the formation, even in a gas zone usually.
The interval transit time t is the reciprocal of EXAMPLE ACOUSTIC LOG
velocity:
t(microsec/ft) = 1,000,000 / velocity(ft/sec)

Acoustic tc usually senses in the flushed

zone (mud filtrate invasion).
-Gas occasionally makes tc too large
-Gas occasionally causes cycle skips
(cycle skips are discussed in a few pages)
If you have cycle skips, look for a
possible gas zone.

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Interpretation of Acoustic Log Quantitative Interpretation (Compressional)
In a clean, consolidated formation with
The acoustic log compressional travel time tc uniformly distributed small pores, the
is usually interpreted by itself, and often also formation porosity can be calculated from the
used as a supplement to the density-neutron compressional transit time per foot by one of
combination. The following is directed towards two main methods:
interpretation of the acoustic compressional travel Wyllie Time Average Method
time curve by itself. A later section will discuss the
uses of the shear wave travel time, and a bit about Raymer Hunt Gardner Method
usage of the Stonely wave. Wyllie Time Average:
A. Qualitative Interpretation (Compressional)
Oldest
All porosity logs are scaled so the porosity
increases to the left. Simplest

Thus qualitative interpretation consists of looking Less accurate, but fairly good.
for increasing porosity as seen by the curve Derived from linear time addition through
increasing towards the left, which is not caused by a porosity and through matrix:
cycle skip (discussed later) or increasing shale
content (look at lithology indicators, mainly GR and tlog = por tf + (1-por) tma
SP). 1 foot

Matrix
tf
tma
.
Solving for porosity gives the Compressional transit time for various materials:
Wyllie Time Average Equation: Sandstone matrix: 55 (s/ft)
Limestone matrix: 47.5 (s/ft)
tlog - tma
Por = Dolomite matrix: 43.5 (s/ft)
tf - tma
Anhydrite (has no porosity): 50.0 (s/ft)
Where
Salt (has no porosity): 67.0 (s/ft)
Por = Porosity (fraction)
Casing (iron) (has no porosity): 57.0 (s/ft)
tlog = Acoustic log compressional travel time
Mud filtrate (tf): ~189 (s/ft)
(microsec / ft)
tma = Compressional Transit time of pure
matrix (no porosity), (microsec / ft) For most practical applications tf of 189 (s/ft)
can be used.
tf = Compressional Transit time of mud
filtrate (microsec / ft), (usually 189)
Use to calculate porosity from the compressional In practice, sometimes the acoustic porosity is
acoustic in clean (no shale), consolidated very good, and sometimes not very accurate.
formations with small uniformly distributed pores
(or alternately use equation next section).
Equation not come from true physics (complex).
Example of Wyllie porosity from acoustic log Additional Acoustic Transit Times
Problem: Given a clean limestone with a
compressional acoustic log reading of 89
(s/ft), what is the porosity.

Solution:
por = (89 - 47.5)/(189 - 47.5)
por = .293 or 29% porosity
Raymer Hunt Gardner Equation Example: Determine the Raymer Hunt
In 1980 Raymer Hunt and Gardner proposed an Gardner acoustic porosity for a clean
empirically based equation for calculating limestone when the compressional
porosity from the compressional acoustic log. acoustic log reads 77.8 (s/ft)
This equation improved porosity determination
from the compressional acoustic somewhat.
The Raymer Hunt Gardner (RHG) equation is:

Where
tma = 56 (s/ft) for sandstone
tma = 49 (s/ft) for limestone
tma = 44 (s/ft) for dolomite
tf = 189 (s/ft)
Environmental Effects Quality Control of Acoustic Logs:
How to Spot & Edit Bad Data
The acoustic log does not have any
environmental corrections.
The compressional acoustic log has two quality
Shale corrections and editing for spikes and problems to look for:
cycle skips are still needed (see following
section). Cycle skips
Spikes or valleys

Cycle skips are a sudden increase in travel time,

due to the amplitude of the first arrival at the
second detector being below the detection level.
A later arrival is counted instead. Cycle skips
are very sharp, usually not very long (foot or
two), often about 13 s/ft, and usually obvious.
Cycle skipping can be caused by gas in the
formation, gas in the mud, unconsolidated
formations, formation fractures, rugose or
washed out boreholes.

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 EXAMPLE OF COMPRESSIONAL
The compressional acoustic log is not as
ACOUSTIC LOG CYCLE SKIP
sensitive to washouts as the other porosity GR SP Ind resis 200 t (s/ft) 100
logs. In bad hole (washed out) the
compressional acoustic can be the only
source of reliable porosity information.
Long
Editing cycle skips is usually done Spaced
approximately by connecting the last Sonic
good values on either side with a

Cycle Skips
straight line.
Spurious spikes and valleys occur
occasionally. They are caused by things Short
like the tool banging against the Spaced
Sonic
borehole wall or insufficient signal at
the receiver. They show up as a sharp
localized spike or valley with no
correspondence in either the caliper,
density, neutron or resistivity log.
They are edited the same as cycle skips,
namely joining the last good points on
either side of the spike/valley.

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Shale Correction for Uses of Shear Waves
Acoustic:
Some of the main applications of shear
SS with Porosity Sh wave measurements are:
Gas detection in openhole
Vss Vsh
Mechanical properties, from cross-dipole
azimuthal Anisotropy* measurements
The equation to approximately shale correct the .
compressional acoustic log is:
PORtrue = PORtlog - Vsh PORtsh The Stoneley wave data can be used to derive a permeability index.
PORtlog = Acoustic-porosity of interest from However, the permeability index is not absolute unless calibrated to
log (%) (from Wyllie or RHG equation) core or other reliable permeability information.

PORtsh = Acoustic-porosity in 100% shale

(taken from log) (from Wyllie or RHG
equation)
Shale correction of acoustic logs is not
especially accurate, and not as good as the
shale correction for the density and neutron,
but is probably better than nothing.

*diffent values at different directions

Combination of Density & Neutron
The combination of density and neutron logs is
very powerful and very popular in the logging
community, because:
Allows gas detection with just these two logs
Most important aspect
Allows porosity determination
Allows lithology determination
Allows Vsh calculation
Gives redundant (two) porosity measurements
Helps in quality control
Gives caliper, helps in quality control
Density correction () helps in quality control
Applications of Neutron Density (ND)
1. Quick Porosity
In clean or not very shaly formations a quick
and fairly accurate porosity can be obtained by
taking the mid point between the neutron and
density porosities scaled in limestone porosity
units.
Good for any mix of LS & SS & DOL.
If the log is scaled in limestone porosity
units for both the neutron and density, just
read the porosity of the mid-point between
the two curves. (For any mix of LS and
dolomite and sandstone.)
 2. Identify Lithology
Example Density - Neutron Log (LS Matrix)
+45% Porosity (LS) -15%
By comparing the neutron and density values from
Carbonate
a log (in an interval of constant lithology) with that
Formation of known lithologies, that lithology can be
identified.
Many lithologies can be uniquely identified in this
way, such as:
Neutron
Density Por Por
Neu (LS %) Den (g/cc)
Anhydrite 0 2.98
Gypsum ~56 2.35
Salt (Halite) -2 2.03
Usually the ND log readings are plotted on a
crossplot (next section) for lithology identification.
Clean sandstone, clean limestone, and clean
dolomite can be identified in this way too.
Values for many other less common lithologies not
given on common crossplots can be found in tables.

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3. Crossplots Neutron-Density Crossplot

Crossplots are a powerful and convenient way

of obtaining porosity and lithology information
about a formation from two logs, such as ND.
Crossplots also are a convenient way of
visualizing log data.

Crossplots consist of plotting one log response

against another. The position of pure non-
porous lithologies are plotted on the plot for
23 PU,
reference, as well as lines for varying porosities
2/3LS,
in sandstone, limestone, and dolomite.
1/3 Dol
The neutron-density crossplot porosity is
usually the best and most common method to
obtain porosity

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