CHAPTER 9:

Community Ecology

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 Learning Outcome
Describe the concept of competition
Explain the Lotka-Voltera Model and
Competitive Exclusion Principle
Illustrate the resource partitioning
Explain the concept of niche
Distinguish between r/K selection of trait

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 Single species population interact
with other species and this
interaction can be:

1. Positive (+ +) (+ 0) benefit to both/one party

2. Negative (- -) detrimental to both
3. Neutral (- +) one party gain benefit

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1. Competition 2 sp use the same limited resource
detrimental to both (- -) negative

2. Predation one sp eats all or part of a 2nd animal sp. (+ -)

neutral

3. Parasitism two sp living in close obligatory association

parasite depend metabolically on host (+ -) neutral

4. Herbivor one animal eat part or all of a plant sp. (+ -)

neutral

5. Disease between a pathogenic microorganism and a host sp

host suffers (+ -) neutral

6. Mutualism 2 sp in close association benefit of both (+ +)

positive

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Competition
(- -)

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Competition between species in nature for space
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between damselfish (left) and blennids (right)
Competition among
trees roots compete
for water and nutrient
while leaves compete
for sunlight 7
 Competition has basically 3 forms:

1. Resource/exploitative competition:
occurs when a number of organisms utilize/exploit
common resources that are in short supply and results
in reduced growth of both

2. Interference competition:
occurs when organisms seeking resources harm one
another / interfere other species even if resources are
not in short supply aggressive behavior - aggression.

3. Diffuse competition:
more than one competitor
can exclude a species or greatly reduce its numbers
through competitive interactions with a specific
combination of other species, rather than just one
strong competitor
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 Modes of Competition
Interference:
Direct aggressive interaction between
individuals.
Intraspecific:
Competition with members of own
species.
Interspecific:
Competition between individuals of two
species - reduces fitness of both.
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 Competition Theory (Interspecific)-
Lotka-Volterra Model

To describe the dynamics of biological systems in

which two species interact, one a predator and
one its prey
equation based on the logistic curve:
sp 1 dN1/dt = r1N1(K1 N1)/K1
sp 2 dN2/dt = r2N2(K2 N2)/K2
both sp (sp1 and sp2) are interacting affecting
pop growth of each other

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 Competition Theory (Interspecific)-
Lotka-Volterra Model

Consider an environment containing a certain

amount of limiting resource.

Sp 1 uses this resource and will have K1 indv.

But some of this resource can used by its

competitor sp.2.

The resource use by individual of sp.1 and

individual of sp. 2 differs.

Convert species 2 ind. into equivalent number of

sp. 1 ind.
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 Competition Theory (Interspecific)-
Lotka-Volterra Model

N2 = equivalent number of sp 1 ind.

= conversion factor for expressing sp 2 in units

of sp 1.
a measure of inhibitory effect of one N2 ind on
pop growth of sp. 1.
- So the competition for sp 1,

dN1/dt = r1N1(K1 N1 N2)/K1, pop of sp

1 is depressed by presence of sp. 2.

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 Competition Theory (Interspecific)-
Lotka-Volterra Model

N1 = equivalent number of species 2 ind.

= conversion factor for expressing sp 1 in sp 2

units
a measure of inhibitory effect of one N1 ind on
pop growth of sp.2
- So equation for sp. 2,

dN2/dt = r2N2(K2 N2 N1)/K2, pop of

sp.2 is depressed by presence of sp.1

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 Studies of Competition
Support of the Lotka-Volterra Equation
1. Gause Experiments (1934) Paramecium Aurelia and P.
caudatum
P. Aurelia has a higher rate of pop growth grows faster
and can tolerate higher density
When grown alone both survive well and established a
logistic growth
When mixed together in a fixed food medium (bacteria)
P. caudatum died out P. Aurelia interfered the pop growth
of P. caudatum because of its higher growth rate

2. Next he used P. bursaria and P. caudatum. Both sp.

reached stability
- P. caudatum feed in the solution
P. bursaria feeds at the bottom of tube
Even though both utilize the same food supply they
occupied different part of the test tube
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Gause Experiments

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 Factors affecting Competition
1. Competition is also influenced by non
resource factors temp (light), soil (nutrient)
or water pH, relative humidity, salinity

2. Temporal variation in the environment

influences competitive interactions seasonal
rainfall, dry and wet conditions

3. Several concurrent resources -plants

require light, soil nutrients, and water, all at
the same time

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 Competitive Exclusion Principle
(Gause Principle)

In the Lotka-Volterra equations one sp can drive the

other to extinction

complete competitors cannot coexist

= no 2 sp. can occupy the same niche
= sp with identical niche cannot coexist indefinitely

complete competitors two sp (non interbreeding

pop) posses exactly the same ecological requirements
and live in exactly the same place

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Species Coexistence- org. using the same but
limited resources, because of diff response to a
fluctuating environment and diff life history
traits

Resource Partitioning (Diet & Habitat)

Spatial & food aspect - Observation of a number
of sp sharing the same habitat suggest that
they coexist by utilizing different resources (size
and kind of food) at different area

Spatial & temporal feeding aspect feed at

different times (temporal) or at different area
(spatial)

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Vegetation zonation and altitudinal range of 4
species of chipmunks example of interaction of
competition and tolerance to physical stress in
determining species distribution

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Partitioning of soil resource at
different levels by 3 species of
plants one year after disturbance

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Size of canine teeth for small cat species that coexist 22
 Resource partitioning
1. Consider sp A in absence of a competitor utilize a
wide range of different sized food items (bell
shape curve)

x axis - food size

Sp A
Small Large
y axis - fitness food food

most individuals feed about the optimum while at

tail ends feed on either large or small food items

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2. Now allow a new sp B to enter the area
resource use curve when superimposed shows
that there is an overlap

Sp A Sp B

Resource Use 24
3. Selective pressure from
interspecific (diff. sp)
competition forces both sp
to narrow their range of
resource use

4. Natural selection will favor

ind. in areas of minimal
overlap, so
- sp will narrow their range
of resource use

- they diverge moving to the

left and right of the graph

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5. As a result:
- direct interspecific competition
reduced/minimized

- both sp A and B sp have their

specific range of resources and can
coexist

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6. Now allow a 3rd sp. to enter the area to invade
the resource gradient between A & B.

7. Sp. 3 can invade if:

- A & B are rare
- resources are abundant
- A and B are below carrying capacity

8. Under such conditions, competition will force each

sp. to become more specialized in their resource
utilization
to narrow their range of resource use to
optimum

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 Difference in resource use
1. Intraspecific (same sp) Alone Wide
competition favors Resource Use

expansion of resource
base

2. interspecific (2 or more 2 species Narrower

Resource Use
sp) competition favor
narrowing of resource
base

Specialized Resource Use

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 Resource partitioning

Example: the study on resource partitioning

suggests that American Warblers split up
their niches within spruce trees.

Method: Spatial and temporal

- Each species of bird hunts insects at different
part of the tree and nests (spatial) at a separate
time (temporal) from other warblers.

Results:
i. reducing niche overlap,
ii. species are able to coexist within a community.
iii. decrease in competition between species within a
community.
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 Concept of the Niche
1. Reflects the environmental requirements of species,
functional roles, food habits and morphological traits
2. Subdivision of the environment, occupied by a sp
(Grinnell 1928)
3. Fundamental role of org in the community -what it
does, its relation to its food and enemies (Elton 1927)
4. All the ways in which a species conform to the
environment
5. To ecologist, the niche factors that influence
growth, survival and reproduction of a species
all factors necessary for its existence

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 Niches
Hutchinson (1957) defined niche
as:
n-dimensional hyper-volume
(multi dimensional space of resources)
n equates the number of environmental
factors (biotic and abiotic) important
to growth, survival and reproduction
of a species.
Fundamental niche
Realized niche

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Realized niche Fundamental niche
includes interactions full range of environmental
such as competition conditions (biological and
that may restrict physical) under which an
environments where a organism can exist,
species may live. hypervolume
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Warblers with their space niche habitat partitioning
(resource partitioning)

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 Feeding Niches of Galapagos
Finches
Differences in beak size among ground finches
translates directly into diet.
Size of seeds eaten can be estimated by
measuring beak depths.
Individuals with deepest beaks fed on
hardest/large seeds.
Individuals with shallow beak will feed on
the soft/small seeds
After 1977 drought, the remaining seeds
were very hard. Thus, mortality was most
heavy in birds with smaller beaks.
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Feeding Niches
of Galapagos
Finches body
size and seed
size

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Relationship between hardness of seed and beak depth in medium 37
ground finch, Geospiza fortis within species differences
 medium

Selection for larger size among medium ground finches, 38

Geospiza fortis during drought on Daphe Major Island
 r/K selection theory

relates to the selection of

traits which promote success in
particular environments

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r-selection and K-selection
r-strategists/selected K-strategists/selected

1. Have high reproductive 1. Have low reproductive

rates (e.g Insects) rates (e.g Mammals)
2. Rapid development 2. Gradually development
3. Small body size 3. Large body size
4. Produce few seeds, eggs
4. Produce large no of or young
offspring
5. Among animals, parents
5. Minimal parental care care for their young
6. Short-lived individuals 6. long-lived individuals
7. E.g insects and weeds 7. E.g, trees and deer
weeds, tough and Among plants, seeds
adaptable, have means of possess stored food
wide dispersal, good Have the ability to cope
colonizers and respond with physical and biotic
rapidly to disturbance pressures
Competitive sp with stable
populations
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 r-selection

In unstable or unpredictable environments

Ability to reproduce quickly is crucial

Traits that are thought to be characteristic of

r-selection include: high fecundity, small
body size, short generation
time, and the ability to
disperse offspring widely.

Organisms whose life history is subject to

r-selection are often referred to as
r-strategists or r-selected.

Organisms with r-selected traits range from

bacteria and diatoms, through insects and
weeds and mammals, especially small
rodents.
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 k-selection
In stable or predictable environments

Ability to compete successfully for limited resources is crucial

Traits that are thought to be characteristic of K-selection

include: large body size, long life expectancy, and the
production of fewer offspring that require extensive parental
care until they mature.

Organisms whose life history is subject to K-selection are

often referred to as K-strategists or K-selected.

Organisms with K-selected traits include large organisms

such as elephants, humans and whales, but smaller
organisms also use this "strategy" successfully, such as
Arctic Terns.

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