CHAPTER 2

DISTRIBUTION & ABUNDANCE

1
 Learning Outcome
1. To understand the concepts of
adaptation-tolerance
2. To be able to relate between
biogeography and how it affect
distribution and abundance.
3. To understand Transplant
experiment.
Adaptation = The set of characteristics (biochemical,
physiological, morphological and behavioral) that enables an
organism to maximize its fitness under one set of
environmental conditions.

Long neck of giraffe -to feed in areas that cannot be

reached to other animals.

White coat of polar bear -makes it invisible to potential

prey, increase its capability to hunt or search for food in the
Arctic.

Modern corn - Native Americans only planting seeds from

those with the most kernels and discarding the rest.

3
4
Concept of Adaptation- Range

Why is the range of some organisms

wide while for others is narrow for
environmental conditions?
This is related to the adaptive ability of
the species

5
Concept of Adaptation- Fitness
Among reproducing individuals some will
leave more offspring than others - fitness

A measure of the contribution to the gene

pool and to future generation.

6
Link between Natural Selection
and Adaptation
NS- differential success (survival and
reproduction) of individuals in a population within
a given environment.

Evolution- changes in any attribute of a

population over time (genes/allele). Leads to
adaptation in population over generations.

Adaptation and tolerance

7
3 important law which affect distribution and
abundance:

1) Law of the Minimum (Liebig)

2) Law of Limiting Factors (Blackman)
3) Law of Tolerance (Shelford)

8
 1. Law of the Minimum
(Liebig)
The rate of any biological process is limited by
that factor in least amount relative to
requirements.

There is only one limiting factor at any one

time.

Additions of other environmental factors will not

increase growth until the amount of the limiting
factor is increased.

9
 Law of the Minimum- Liebig
Liebig compare the potential of a crop to a
barrel with staves of unequal length.

The capacity of this barrel is limited by the

length of the shortest stave (in this case,
phosphorus) and can only be increased by
lengthening that stave.

When that stave is lengthened, another

one becomes the limiting factor.

10
 2. Law of Limiting factors
(Blackman)

=maximum quantity of a resource tolerated

by an organism would also limit response
as well.

11
 Law of Limiting factors
(Blackman)
As the light intensity (LI) increases,
the rate of p/s increases, until the Light
plant is photosynthesizing as fast as intensity

it can.

LSP - Light Saturation Point. When

the LSP is reached, plants cannot
photosynthesize any faster, even
when the light gets brighter. P/s rate
- max. quantity of light that the plant
can tolerate

12
 3. Law of Tolerance
(Shelford)
Law of Tolerance = combination of Law of the
Minimum and Law of Limiting Factors:

illustrated by a bell shaped curved

difference in tolerance for organism which are:
Zone of intolerance (Organism absent)
Survival
Growth
Greatest fitness = The zone of greatest fitness is areas in
which is the most optimum time for reproduction or fitness.

13
14
 Tolerance ranges are not fixed:
- as seasons and conditions change, individuals may
acclimate by shifting their tolerance ranges.

All these shifts takes place within the adaptive

physiological (functional) limits.

This short term response to changing environments is

termed as acclimatization (adaptation)

15
 Broad tolerance range = able to exist within a wide range
environmental factor (salinity, temperature or humidity).
eg blue crab (Callinectes sapidus) and seabass/baramundi
(Lates calcarifer) : can survive in marine to freshwater.

Tolerance ranges are usually narrow for juveniles of many

species.

16
 Eury = wide tolerance (euryhaline, eurythermal).
Steno = narrow tolerance (stenohaline, stenothermal).
Eg.: Salmon eggs and larvae in freshwater (Stenohaline) while adults
in marine (Euryhaline)

Organisms with a wide range of tolerance - widely

distributed

17
 Ecotype
Definition: A subspecies or race that
is especially adapted to a particular
set of environmental conditions.

Due to evolutionary relationship the more

closely related species are almost similar
in tolerance.

18
 Four (4) constraints to Adaptation:
1. Genetic forces : mutation and gene flow prevent
adaptation most mutation are detrimental rather than
adaptive.

2. Changing environment : Environments are

continuously changing.

3. Adaptation is a compromise : gain in one and lose at

another. e.g, a loon, a type of bird have wings that are
adapted for diving but not so efficient for flying.

4. Historical constraints : all organisms have a history

and change in small increments
 Coevolution/Arms Race
Mutual evolutionary = evolution of two species
totally dependent on each other.

Each of the species involved puts selective

pressure on the other, so they evolved together

Example:
herbivore and food plants
predator-prey,
host-parasite

20
Example 1: Coevolution/Arms Race
(Host-Parasite)
Brown-headed cowbirds in North
America. They carve a living by
following herds of bison or cattle,
and feeding off the insects that the
beasts attract. The cowbirds lay their eggs
in the nest of an
Nomadic life-style: This makes unsuspecting song-bird
and leave
bringing up young problematic.

They get over this obstacle by becoming

"brood parasites". In other words, they
recruit different bird species to
unwittingly raise their young.

Very simply, they lay their eggs in the

nest of an unsuspecting song-bird,
like the eastern phoebe, and leave.
A type of parasitic bird, which
is reared by unrelated host
"parents", is happy to share its
21
nest with the host's babies,
Example 1: Coevolution/Arms Race
(Host-Parasite)
Parasitic birds lay their eggs that closely mimic
those of the host and young with characteristics
that encourage the hosts to feed them (same
color, size and pattern as host)

The hosts then provide parental care to the

unrelated young that hatch from the parasitic
egg, often to the detriment of their own young

Both parasite (cowbird chick) and host sp

(song bird chick) are continually evolving
counter-strategies for survival

22
Example 1: Coevolution/Arms Race
- selfish reason

Cowbirds who share their nest with another host chicks

actually succeed: they grow much faster than cowbird
chicks reared alone.

This is because the host parents work disproportionately

hard to feed a full nest.

And, because the cowbird chick is rather more robust, it

gets more than its share of the food.

Cowbird gained disproportionately from the higher

provisioning because it could overpower the host young,
and take more than its fair-share of food." 23
Example 2: Coevolution/
Arms Race (Mutualistic)
Yucca moths (pollinator)
and yucca plants (provide
home, food)
Yucca flowers are a certain
shape so only
-that tiny moth can pollinate
them.

The moths lay their eggs in

the yucca flowers and
- the larvae (caterpillars) live
in the developing ovary and
eat yucca seeds.

24
Example 3: Coevolution/Arms Race
(Mutualistic)
Acacia ants (protector) and
acacia trees (provide home,
food)
Acacias are small, Central
American trees in the
Leguminosae.

They have large, hollow thorns.

The acacia ants live in the thorns.

On the tips of its leaflets, the

plant makes a substance used by
the ants as food.

The ants defend the tree from

herbivores by attacking/stinging
any animal that even accidentally 25
brushes up against the plant.
Example 4: Coevolution/Arms Race
(Mutualistic- Plant and Pollinator)
Many plants depend on
animals to spread their
pollen.
This is a mutualistic
relationship where the
plant and the pollinator
benefit each other.
The plant expends less
energy on pollen
production and instead
produces showy flowers,
nectar, and/or odors.
Some plants/flowers are
more general, while others
are more specific.

26
 Units of Selection
Darwin said that natural selection operates
through reproduction and survival of individuals
who differ genetically individual selection
most important (Darwinian selection)
Natural selection is not only restricted to
individuals but can act on any biological unit as
long as:
1) they can replicate/reproduce/divide
2) produce more than replacement needs
3) survival depends on some attribute (size,
colour, behavior)
4) a mechanism allows for the transmission of
the attributes
27
Three (3) Units of Selection

1. Gametic
2. Kin
3. Group

28
 1. Gametic Selection
eggs and sperm (n) have genetic
composition that differs from the diploid
(2n) organisms that produce them

natural selection can act on the gametes

sperm mobility, pollen that produce faster
growing pollen tube so it will have better
chance for sperm and egg fusing

29
 2. Kin Selection
Individuals that increase the survival or reproduction
of its relatives

Natural selection favors alleles that benefit an

individual but also alleles that benefit close relatives
of that individual that share alleles
Altruistic traits alarm call
Ground squirrel see a predator they give an
alarm call
Draws attention to itself (detrimental to itself)
Warns nearby squirrels to run for cover
beneficial to relatives
Effects social organization and population dynamics
30
 3. Group Selection
When populations of a species are
broken up into discrete groups more
or less isolated from one another

Not an important force shaping in

adaptation for the distribution and
abundance of organisms

31
Species

32
 The Species Concept
Definition:
A group of populations whose individuals
have the potential to interbreed and
produce viable fertile offspring but are
unable to produce viable fertile offspring
with members of other populations.

33
 Sturnella magna Sturnella neglecta

(a)
Similarity between different species.
The eastern meadowlark (Sturnella
magna, left) and the western
meadowlark (Sturnella neglecta, right)
have similar body shapes and
colorations. Nevertheless, they are
distinct biological species because
their songs and other behaviors are
different enough to prevent
interbreeding should they meet in the
wild.

(b) Diversity within a species. As diverse

as we may be in appearance, all
humans belong to a single biological
species (Homo sapiens), defined by
our capacity to interbreed.
34
 Reproductive Isolation

Isolating mechanisms morphological characteristics,

behavioral traits, ecological conditions, genetic
incompatibility.

These mechanisms could be pre-mating or post mating

Pre-mating/Prezygotic : prevents mating between diff sp.

Post-mating/Post zygotic : reduces the survival or success of

offspring that results from mating between 2 diff sp.

35
 Premating mechanisms

1)HABITAT SELECTION

- Isolation through differences in

habitat is common among frogs
and toads
- Different calling and mating
sites among breeding frogs and
toads tend to keep the species
separated

36
37
38
 Frogs
- The upland chorus frog and the
southern chorus frog breed in the
same pools, but tend to separate
themselves in different locations in
the pond
- The upland chorus frog calls from a
more open location while southern
chorus frog calls from a concealed
position at the base of the grass or
debris of vegetation.

39
 Premating mechanisms

2) TEMPORAL ISOLATION

Difference in the timing of breeding and

flowering seasons
E.g, the American toad (Bufo
americanus) breeds early in the spring
while Fowlers toad (Bufo woodsei
fowleri) breeds a few weeks later than
the American toad

40
 Premating mechanisms

3) BEHAVIORAL BARRIERS
Difference in courtship and mating
- The males of many animals have specific
courtship displays and mostly only females of the
same species respond

- Example of displays: visual, auditory or chemical

stimuli
1. Visual signals developed by birds and some fish
2. Birds, frogs, and toads, crickets, grasshoppers, cicadas
have specific calls that attract only the correct species
3. Some insects, i.e butterflies, fruit flies and some
mammals possess species-specific scent
41
 Premating mechanisms

4) Mechanical isolating mechanism

- Difference in floral structure eg. Umbel (Lily),
Corimb (Bunga tahi ayam; Lantana sp.,)

- Make copulation and pollinating between closely

related species impossible

42
 Prezygotic barriers - slow down mating or obstruct fertilization if mating does occur

Habitat Temporal Behavioral Mechanical

isolation isolation isolation isolation

Prezygotic and postzygotic barriers

Individuals
of different
Mating
attempt
species

HABITAT ISOLATION TEMPORAL ISOLATION BEHAVIORAL ISOLATION MECHANICAL ISOLATION

(b) - time of breeding or - Courtship and mating -Prevent pollination
- flowering season - prevent copulation

(d)

(e) (g)
(f)
(a)
(c)

43
 Gametic
Reduce Reduce Hybrid
isolation
hybrid hybrid breakdown
viability fertility
Viable
Fertilization fertile
offspring

GAMETIC ISOLATION REDUCED HYBRID REDUCED HYBRID FERTILITY HYBRID BREAKDOWN

VIABILITY
(hybrids generally do not
capacity for surviving
survive and if survive are
- Germinating under favorable infertile horse + donkey=mule
condition (baghal).

(k)

(j)
(m)

(i) (l)
(h)

44
 Speciation Involves
Reproductive Isolation
According to Darwin, speciation is
the divergence of existing species
through natural selection (natural
event)

Critical step of genetic isolation is

when the gene pool of one
population becomes isolated from
the parent population. 45
46
 Explanation for (a)
Imagine a piece of land, warm and dry occupy
by species A
At some point of geological time, mountains
uplift and land sink and floods with water
This cause the splitting of the original land of
parent population and separates species A
from the rest of the population and will
become the subpopulation A
A now occupies a cool, moist climate different
from the original population
Natural selection will favor individuals best
adapted to cool and moist climate, similar
selection as well for dry climate
47
 Explanation for (b)
If geological barrier breaks down and the
two populations rejoin before natural
selection results in difference that cause
reproductive isolation,
- the two populations may merge into one
population back again

48
 Explanation for (c)
If sufficient differences occur that does not
allow breeding to happen, then the two
populations will be separated even if they
do come together again

49
 Speciation can take place with or
without geographic separation
Speciation can occur in two ways
Allopatric speciation
Sympatric speciation

(a) (b) Sympatric speciation.

Allopatric speciation.
A population forms a new A small population becomes a
species while new species without geographic
geographically separation.
isolated
50
 Speciation
Allopatric species
occupy areas separated in space and time

subpopulation becomes geographically isolated from

original/parent pop

51
 Speciation
Sympatric species
occupy same area at the same time and may have
chance to interbreed
subpopulation becomes a new species without
geographic separation.

52