Intended Learning Outcomes

• To understand the transformer’s construction

• To understand theory of transformer operation

• To analyse the performance of transformer

Single-phase Transformers
A transformer is a device that changes ac electric power at one voltage
level to ac electric power at another voltage level(for a certain
frequency) through the action of a magnetic field.
The transformer has the https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vh_aCAHThTQ
following parts:
HV
• Primary winding winding
LV
• Secondary winding winding

• Magnetic core

Transformer
core
Importance of Transformers
• A transformer ideally changes one ac voltage level to another voltage level
without affecting the actual power supplied.
• For step-up transformer the output current will be lower than the input current.
• It reduces power losses of transmission lines connected to the high voltage side.
• In a modern power system, electric power is generated at voltages of 11 to 33 kV.
Transformers step up the voltage to between 132 kV and nearly 1500 kV for
transmission over long distances at very low losses.
• Transformers then step down the voltage to the 11- to 33-kV range for local
distribution and finally permit the power to be used safely in homes, offices, and
factories at voltages as low as 240 V.
• Without the transformer, it would simply not be possible to use electric power in
many of the ways it is used today.
Construction
We have two
type of
transformers:
• core type
• shell type

Actual Core Type Tr

Actual shell Type Tr
 Magnetic Circuit

Shown in the figure, a schematic

representation of a single-phase
transformer with two coils on a
magnetic core , where the magnetic
coupling is assumed to be perfect. The
same flux passes through each turn of
each coil.
Voltage Equations of Transformer
Magnetic Flux of Transformers
Current Equations of Transformers
Decision on Transformer rating
• The maximum primary voltage is determined by equation 8 and is
independent of the current.
• The maximum primary current is determined by the 𝐼2 𝑅 power loss
which is independent of the applied voltage.
• Consequently, for a given design of transformer, there is maximum value
for the product 𝑉1 𝐼1 at the primary terminals which is also equal to 𝑉2 𝐼2
at the secondary terminals.
• The maximum volt-ampere value does not depend on the phase angle
between the voltage and current.
• Transformer ratings therefore specify the apparent power VI(volt-ampere
, VA) rather than the real power VIcos𝜃(watts, W).
Types of Transformers in Service
• Transformers can be classified by their purpose of use such as:
1. Power Transformers:
A. Unit transformers(connecting generators in power plants to the network 11/400 kV)
B. Substation transformers(used to lower the voltage level at the end of transmission
lines 400/132/33 kV)
C. Distribution transformers(used to supply power to customers 11/0.4 kV)
2. Instrument Transformers:
a) Potential transformers(used for voltage measurement and protection)
b) Current transformers(used for current measurement and protection)
• Also Transformers can be classified by their type of connection into:
1. Double wound transformers(Single-phase transformers and Three-phase
transformers: one winding for primary and one for secondary)
2. Auto-wound transformers(Auto-transformers: same winding for both primary and
secondary windings)
Ideal Transformer
• An ideal transformer is a lossless device with an input winding and an output winding. The
relationships between the input voltage and the output voltage, and between the input
current and the output current , are given by two simple equations.
Ideal Transformer-1
Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
The approximate Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
Experimental Determination of Equivalent
Circuit Parameters
 𝑃𝑂𝐶 = 𝑉1𝑜𝑐 𝐼1𝑂𝐶 cos 𝜃𝑂
Open-Circuit Test
𝑃𝑂𝐶 =𝑉1𝑂𝐶 𝐼𝑅

𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
Hence 𝐼𝑅 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
Then 𝑅𝐶 =
𝐼𝑅
(𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔)2
Or 𝑅𝐶 =
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
Short-Circuit Test
Short-Circuit Test-1

𝑃𝑆𝐶 = 𝑉1𝑆𝐶 𝐼1𝑆𝐶 cos 𝜃𝑆𝐶

2
𝑃𝑆𝐶 =𝐼1𝑆𝐶 𝑅𝑒

𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑅𝑒 =
(𝐴𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔)2

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑍𝑒 =
𝐴𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝑋𝑒 = 𝑍𝑒2 − 𝑅𝑒2
Polarity Test
• Procedure:
1. Connect the two primary windings as shown in the circuit diagram with very
low ac voltage applied.

1. Monitor the reading of the ammeter after closing the switch. If the reading is
very low we can say that terminal “B1” has the same polarity of “A1” and
similarly “A2” and “B2” are identical. This is because the two induced emfs E1
and E2 are in the same sense(direction).

• If the ammeter reading is very high, then we have opposite polarities.

Transformer Performance indices
• Transformer performance indices are the voltage regulation and efficiency.
• Because a real transformer has series impedances within it, the output voltage of a transformer
varies with the load even if the input voltage remains constant.
• voltage regulation (VR). Full-load voltage regulation is a quantity that compares the output
voltage of the transformer at no load with the output voltage at full load. It is defined by the
equation:
𝑉2𝐹𝐿 −𝑉2𝑁𝐿
𝑉𝑅 = X100%
𝑉2𝐹𝐿
• Usually it is a good practice to have as small a voltage regulation as possible. For an ideal
transformer, VR = 0 percent.
• It is not always a good idea to have a low-voltage regulation, though-sometimes high-
impedance and high-voltage regulation transformers are deliberately used to reduce the fault
currents in a circuit.
• How can the voltage regulation of a transformer be determined?
Transformer phasor diagram
The easiest way to determine the effect of the impedances and the current phase
angles on the transformer voltage regulation is to examine a phasor diagram, a
sketch of the phasor voltages and currents in the transformer.

Unity power factor load Lagging power factor load Leading power factor load
Transformer Efficiency
Transformers are also compared and judged on their efficiencies. The efficiency
of a device is defined by the equation:
The transformer equivalent circuits make efficiency
calculations easy. There are three types of losses present
in transformers:
I. Copper (𝐼2 𝑅) losses. These losses are accounted for by
the series resistance in the equivalent circuit.
2. Hysteresis losses. These losses were explained in
previous lectures and are accounted for by resistor Re.
3. Eddy current losses. These losses were explained in
previous lectures and are accounted for by resistor Re.
Maximum Efficiency
We can write:
𝑉1 𝐼1 cos 𝜃1 −𝐼12 𝑅𝑒𝑞 −𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
ƞ=
𝑉1 𝐼1 cos 𝜃1
𝐼1 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
Ƞ=1- -
𝑉1 cos 𝜃1 𝑉1 𝐼1 cos 𝜃1
𝑑Ƞ 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
=0 - +
𝑑𝐼1 𝑉1 cos 𝜃1 𝑉1 𝐼12 cos 𝜃1
𝑑Ƞ
At maximum efficiency =0, then
𝑑𝐼1
𝐼12 𝑅𝑒𝑞 =iron loss
𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
Or 𝐼1𝑚𝑎𝑥Ƞ =
𝑅𝑒𝑞
Power flow in a transformer
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉1 𝐼1 cos 𝜃1 W.
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉2 𝐼2 cos 𝜃2 W.
Primary copper loss=𝐼12 𝑅1 W
Secondary copper loss=𝐼22 𝑅2 W
Core losses=hysteresis loss+ eddy
current loss
𝑆1 = 𝑉1 𝐼1 , 𝑃1 = 𝑉1 𝐼1 cos 𝜃1 𝑊 ,
𝑄1 = 𝑉1 𝐼1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 V.A.r
Similarly for the output,
𝑆2 = 𝑉2 𝐼2 , 𝑃2 = 𝑉2 𝐼2 cos 𝜃2 W ,
𝑄2 = 𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2 V.A.r
Quiz
• The electric energy supplied to a transformer is transported to a load
through:
A. Its electric circuit alone
B. Both its electric circuit and the magnetic core
• If we neglect transformer losses, as a circuit it becomes:
A. Instrumentation transformer
B. Ideal transformer
• In an open-circuit test the measured losses of a transformer are
mainly:
A. Copper losses
B. Iron losses
Per-Unit Quantities
• Solving circuits containing transformers can be quite a tedious operation
because of the need to refer all the different voltage levels on different sides of
the transformers in the system to a common level. Only after this step has been
taken can the system be solved for its voltages and currents.
• There is another approach to solving circuits containing transformers which
eliminates the need for explicit voltage-level conversions at every transformer in
the system. Instead, the required conversions are handled automatically by the
method itself, without ever requiring the user to worry about impedance
transformations.
• Because such impedance transformations can be avoided, circuits containing
many transformers can be solved easily with less chance of error. This method of
calculation is known as the per-unit (pu) system of measurements.
Base Quantities
In the per-unit system, the voltages, currents, powers, impedances, and other
electrical quantities are not measured in their usual SI units (volts, amperes, watts,
ohms, etc.). Instead, each electrical quantity is measured as a decimal fraction of
some base level. Any quantity can be expressed on a per-unit basis by the equation

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑃𝑒𝑟 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 =
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦

The actual values are in volts, ampere, watts, ohms for voltage, current, power and
impedance respectively.
The base values are the rated power and voltage of the system.
Base values-1
Parallel Operation of Transformers
Why parallel operation of transformers is needed?
• Increased Load: When load is increased and it exceeds the capacity of existing
transformer, another transformer may be connected in parallel with the existing
transformer to supply the increased load.
• Non-availability of large transformer: If a large transformer is not available which
can meet the total requirement of load, two or more small transformers can be
connected in parallel to increase the capacity.
• Increased reliability: If multiple transformers are running in parallel, and a fault
occurs in one transformer, then the other parallel transformers still continue to
serve the load. And the faulty transformer can be taken out for the
maintenance.
• Transportation is easier for small transformers: If installation site is located far
away, then transportation of smaller units is easier and may be economical.
Conditions for Parallel Operation
• Voltage ratio of all connected transformers must be
same.
• The per unit (pu) impedance of each transformer on
its own base must be same.
• The polarity of all connected transformers must be
same in order to avoid circulating currents in
transformers.
• The phase sequence must be identical of all parallel
transformers.
• The short-circuit impedances should be
approximately equal
Analysis of parallel operation
Z1 and Z2 are the leakage reactances of tr1 and tr2
respectively.
I1 and I2 are the current share of tr1 and tr2 respectively.

V,Z, and I are the load voltage and current respectively.

E1 and E2 are the no load voltages of tr1 and tr2 respectively.

The voltage drops are: ∆𝑉 = 𝐼1 𝑍1 = 𝐼2 𝑍2 = 𝐼𝑍12
Where 𝑍12 =𝑍1 //𝑍2
𝑍 𝑍
Then, 𝐼1 = 𝐼 2 , and 𝐼2 =𝐼 1
𝑍1 +𝑍2 𝑍1 +𝑍2

If we take the total power S=VI of the load, then

𝑍 𝑍
𝑆1 = S 2 , and 𝑆2 = S 1
𝑍1 +𝑍2 𝑍1 +𝑍2
Also we can write 𝐸1 = 𝑉 + 𝐼1 𝑍1 , and 𝐸2 = 𝑉 + 𝐼2 𝑍2
Therefore, 𝐸1 -𝐸2 =𝐼1 𝑍1 -𝐼2 𝑍2
𝐸 −𝐸
At no load 𝐼 =0, therefore, 𝐼1 =-𝐼2 = 1 2
𝑍1 +𝑍2
Transformer Taps and Voltage Regulation
• Distribution transformers have a series of taps in the windings to permit small
changes in the turns ratio of the transformer after it has left the factory. A typical
installation might have four taps in addition to the nominal setting with spacing
of 2.5 percent of full-load voltage between them. Such an arrangement provides
for adjustments up to 5 percent above or below the nominal voltage rating of the
transformer.
• These taps are either set before powering
the transformer(They must be set
once and left alone) or can be adjusted when the
transformer is on load (TCUL: tap changing under
load) by special mechanism.
Auto-Transformers
Auto-Transformers-1